mftrara 




#P* 







INTRODUCTION 



TO 



HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY, 






# 



BY D. V H HEGEWISCH, 

PROFESSOR AT KIEL IN DENMARK. 



TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, 

BY JAMES MARSH. 



) 



^^mm^^^ 



BURLINGTON : 

CHAUNCEY GOODRICH. 



1S37. 
K 



Entered according to ActofCongress,intheyear 1837, 

By Chaujscey Goodrich, 

in the Clerk's office of the district of Vermont. 






The following work has been translated for the 
purpose of supplying, in the readiest way, an obvious 
deficiency in the usual course of elementary instruc- 
tion in history, among the schools and colleges of this 
country. Chronology, as a distinct science, holding 
the same general relation to history which geography 
does, is indeed but little known in our elementary 
systems. I know of no text book, that has been in 
use for teaching what will be found in the manual 
,hen offered to the public. The larger works in our 
public libraries wore designed for other purposes, and 
e*en the treatise of Strauchius, of which a translation 
exists, and is here and there met with, is obviously far 
less suited to the end in view. The prefatory remarks 

of the author, though they refer chiefly to a work un- 
known in this country, with which he compares his 

own views, yet show what he regards as the peculiar 

advantages of the present work. It is referred to by 



Heeren, as a very convenient manual for common 
use, and for the supply of our wants seems better suit- 
ed, than any other. I have made no changes of any 
importance, and what few additions have been inser- 
ted will be found so designated, as to distinguish them 
from the original work. The Translator. 



PREFATORY NOTICE. 



Gatteker's outlines of chronology is, so far as I 
know, the most recent manual for instruction in this 
science, that has appeared in the German language. 

That work, for the beginner, who brings to it the 
necessary attention, and that untiring patience, which 
is indispensable to all sound learning, is indeed suffi- 
cient to open to him the way to chronological knowl- 
edge. 

The book is at the same time a monument of the 
manifold learning of the author, of his industry, and 
of his praisworthy zeal, to promote rather the benefit 
of his hearer or reader, than to advance his own rep- 
utation. 

Yet, commendable as he is for these properties of 
bis work, it has seemed to me, that he might have fa- 
cilitated the study of chronology more, than he has 
1* 



PREFACE. 



there done, and that he has, in fact, needlessly in- 
cumbered it with difficulties, which do not pertain to 
it. He has done this, partly by the want of a natural, 
and clearly arranged method, and partly by mixing 
with it particular doctrines and investigations, which 
do not belong to an elementary work, but divert the 
scholar from his general purpose, and involve him in 
perplexing questions of minor importance. 

1. Instead of separating from each other, what re- 
lates to the division of time, or the methods of divi- 
ding it, on the one hand, and what relates to the suc- 
cession of these divisions, or the methods of designa- 
ting ihe order of successive periods, on the other, Gat- 
terer has throughout his work mingled them confused, 
ly together. Instruction in regard to the division of 
time must naturally precede what concerns the se- 
quence of the divisions adopted. 

2. He has adopted unnecessay and groundless the- 
ories respecting natural and fundamental eras, calen 
dars, periods, &c. These to a beginner must appear 
obscure and mystical, and there is in fact no reason 
for such a distinction. What Gatterer distinguishes 



PREFACE. 7 

by such terms are nothing more than examples, by 
which the conceptions of an era, a calendar and a 
period are clearly represented. 

The Juliano-Gregorian year has as little claim to 
be called a fundamental form of the year, as the Latin 
word mensa has to be considered a fundamental dec- 
lination. Both are simply the most intelligible ex- 
amples, to those for whom they are used, of that which 
they represent. 

3. Gatterer has given an unnecessary number of 
special rules, by which the caleudars of particular 
nations may be made familiar, and their festivals de- 
termined. These rules, at least for the beginner, and 
indeed for the mere historical chronologist generally, 
may be dispensed with, without disadvantage to the 
science. 

4. He has not sufficiently distinguished and sepa- 
rated mathematical or astronomical chronology from 
historical, but has presented both together in a min- 
gled form. They properly require each its own p@ 

culiar method. 

I have been led to believe, therefore, that a new 



© fcBEPACE. 

introduction to the study of merely historical chronol- 
ogy, requires nothing more in the way of improve- 
ment, than the avoidance of the four faults, if I may 
eall them such, above specified, to become both use- 
ful and agreeable to the youthful votaries of historical 
g-cienoe. I say, agreeable, yet only in the negative 
sense, in which we find all saving of unnecessary toil 
agreeable. For to attempt to render chronology agree 
able, in the positive sense of the term, would be a vain 
undertaking. It must always retain the character of 
a dr^ and uninteresting science. 



INTRODUCTION 

TO 

HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGY. 



1. Object and purpose of Chronology. 

Chronology is the science, which determines the re- 
lations of the distinguishable portions of time, in re- 
spect fo their magnitude or duration, and in respect 
to their succession, or order , 

In other words it teaches how to measure, and to 
distinguish the parts or divisions of time. What is 
here meant by the term distinguish will be explained 
in the sequel. 

Chronology has for its object, therefore, not time 
in itself. The question what time in itself is, the 
ahronologist leaves to the metaphysician, and satisfied 
with that clear presentation of it, which, though not 
to be explained by words, is inseparable from the con- 
iciousness of every man, concerns himself only with 
lis divisions, (with years, month, days &,c.) This 
listinction is well expressed in the following Latin 






10 INTRODUCTION 

definition. Chronologia est scientia (not tempus, but) 
lempora metiendi ac distinguendi.* 

The practical purpose aimed at in this science is 
two-fold — to furnish a principle of order in the sci- 
ence of history — and to promote the orderly arrange- 
ments of social life. This it accomplishes by teach- 
ing us how to give with correctness and precision — 1. 
the divisions of past time, in which any thing happen- 
ed — 2. the divisions of the present or future, in which 
any thing happens, or is going to happen. 

2. The divisions of time have a two-fold relation to 
each other. 

Space and time, as the metaphysicians express 
themselves, are the two conditions, on which is groun- 
ded the possibility of all our sensuous intuitions. The 
same thing may be expressed in more common terms, 
by saying whatever exists or comes to pass, exists or 
comes to pass in space and time, or in some place, 
and at some time. 

The parts or divisions of space have a three-fold 

*Chronology is the science, which teaches to measure and 
distinguish (not time, but) times or the divisions of time. 

Instead of chronology the Greeks seem also to have used the 
word chronography (xQovoyQayia) in the same form with 
geography. The science, which treats of time in the abstract or 
pure time, may be termed chronometry, corresponding with ge- 
ometry as the science of pure space, Tr. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 1 1 

relation to each other, that of magnitude, of position, 
and of figure. In other words lean say of a por- 
tion of space — 1. it is greater or less than another — 2. 
it lies before or behind it, above or below, on the one, 
or the other side of it- 3. it iseither a triangle, a square 
a circle, a cube or sphere, or of some other regular or 
irregular figure. 

The parts of time have only two relations to each 
other, that of magnitude or duration, and that of order 
or succession. Of a portion of time, [ can only say 
it is greater or less than another, and it precedes or 
follows another. A year is greater than a month, a 
month than a day. The present year is of a certain 
number, in the order of succession, since the birth of 
Christ, &,c. 

3. The quantity or duration of the divisions of 
time. Possibility of dividing time, and of determin- 
ing the quantity or duration of its different portions. 

As the geometrician, in measuring space, assumes 
certain portions of determinate magnitude as units, 
so must the chronologist proceed in like manner in 
the measurement of time. As the foot or the inch 
are employed for determining the dimensions of a 
given space, so the definite periods, a year, a month, 
or a day, are used to determine the duration of a giv- 
en portion of time. 






J2 



INTRODUCTION 



How then, it may be asked, do we find the differ- 
ent portions of time, that are employed as measures of 
quantity in chronology 1 

Time is apprehended by us through the perception 
of movements in nature, as well the inward movements 
of our minds, as of objects, that fall under the notice 
of our outward senses in space. Any one movement, 
from its beginning to its end, may be considered as a 
determinate portion of time. 

If then we observe in nature movements, that fol- 
low each other in unbroken and uniform succession, 
and so that the beginning and the end of each is ea- 
sily marked, we may adopt such as measures of other 
portions of time. 

In the successive movements of our minds the begin- 
ning and end are not readily observed, and there is in 
these no uniformity^ Hence, though the inward 
movements, of which we are conscious, have duration, 

and may be contemplated under the relation of time, 
they cannot be adopted as its measure. 

But among the phenomena of the outer sense the 
movements of two of the heavenly bodies, the sun and 
moon, have from the earliest times attracted the no- 
tice of mankind by their uniformity, and by their nev- 
er intermitted recurrence, and the periods of both have 
been employed, as the most convenient measure for 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 13 

the duration of time, or rather of its distinguishable 

parts. * 

The sun, from the very dawn of human observation, 
could not but be observed to have always two distinct 
motions, or at least (o present the appearance of such, 
(and it is the appearance only, not what actually takes 
place, with which the chronologist is concerned.) 
Each of these motions of the sun has its commence, 
ment and its termination obvious to the notice of our 
senses, or rather the end of one revolution and the be- 
ginning of another fall in the same point of time, or, 
more strictly still, there is truly neither beginning nor 
end, but only what the human mind assumes as such. 

Each of these revolutions at the instant of its termi- 
nation begins always anew, and so proceeds with un- 
varying uniformity, neither accelerated nor retarded. 
From one arise years, and the seasons of the year, 
from the other days and nights, and hence men have 
from the first regarded years and seasons, days and 
nights, as natural divisions of time. 

The moon in like manner, describes in unbroken 

succession uniform revolutions, the one around the 

earth in about twenty-four hours, the other through 

the signs of the zodiack in a period of near thirty 

days. This last revolution of the moon has also from 

the earliest times, together with the four obvious chan- 
2 



14 INTODUCTIOtf 

ges in its form, been regarded as a natural division and 
measure of time, and the entire period of it denomina- 
ted a month. 

But although these measures of time are grounded 
in the phaenomena of aature, it is still, in part at least, 
a matter of arbitrary determination, what point in the 
revolutions of the sun and moon shall be taken as 
their commencement. In the diurnal motion of the 
sun, for example, we may place it at sunrise, or mid- 
day, or sunset ; in its annual revolution at the sum- 
mer solstice, (the longest summer day) or at the win- 
ter solstice, (the shortest winter day.) Again the be- 
ginning and end of these revolutions, as sunrise or 
sunset, cannot always be accurately observed. They 
mark, too, only the larger divisions of time, as years, 
months, and days, while for the purposes of social life 
still smaller divisions are necessary. Hence legisla- 
tors, the founders of religious institutions, and the or- 
ganizers of civil society, have, by the necessary laws, 
fixed definitely — 1. what point should be reckoned, as 
the begnning and end theof the larger divisions of 
time, (the year, the month, and the day,) and — 2. into 
how many smaller parts the greater should be divided. 

There are therefore natural divisions of time, (partei 
temporis naturales,) such as are marked by natural 
phaenomena, and civil divisions, established by law 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 



15 



and custom, (partes temporis civiles.) These last may 
also be termed artificial or arbitrary ; artificial, be* 
cause found by artificial means, arbitrary, because it 
was a matter of arbitrary determination, whether one 
or another division should be preferred, as whether the 
day should be divided into twelve, or into twenty four 
hours. 

To determine with precision the quantity or dura- 
tion of the natural divisions of time is the business of 
the Astronomer, or of the mathematical Chronologist. 
On the other hand the civil or arbitrary divisions of 
time are matter of mere historical knowledge. Yet 
the mathematical chronologist cannot speak of the di- 
visions of time, nor give their precise duration, with- 
out availing himself of the civil divisions. Mathemat- 
ical and historical chronology are so far, therefore, Mb- 
separably connected. 

4. Order, in which the conceptions of the several 
divisions of time are to be given. 

It might seem at first glance, that, in giving a 
knowledge of the divisions of time, it would be the 
most natural method to arrange them in the order of 
their magnitude, preceding either from the least to the 
greatest, or from the greatest to the least. In the 
first we should have, for example, seconds, minuteg, 



16 



INTRODUCTION 



hours, days, weeks, months, and years, and in the 
second the same divisions in the reverse order. 

But both these methods have the same inconven- 
ience, that we cannot obtain a definite conception of 
either extreme, the year or the second, without hav- 
ing first a conception of the divisions, that are inter- 
mediate. The conception of a day is the only one , 
that can be clearly apprehended independently of the 
rest. 

The easiest method, therefore, and the freest from 
all difficulties, is to begin with the day, and in it to 
mark the smaller divisions, into which it has been di- 
vided, not by nature, but by arbitrary arrangement. 
We can then proceed from the day to the year, from 
this to the month, and from the month to the division 
into weeks, 

5. Of Days. 



The natural day (dies naturalis, arcus diurnus) is 
the portion of time, during which the sun continues 
above our horizon, or which begins with sunrise and 
ends with sunset. The natural night (nox naturalis, 
arcus nocturnus) is the time marked by the contin- 
uance of the sun below our horizon, or which begins 
with sunset and ends with sunrise. 

But as the natural day varies in length, continually 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 



17 



increasing from the winter to the summer solstice, and 
again decreasing from the summer to the winter, it 
cannot furnish the unit of duration, by a repetition or 
division of which we may obtain the measure of other 
periods. In order to obtain a unit of unvarying mag- 
nitude or duration, therefore, the founders of civil in- 
stitutions have taken the natural day and night togeth- 
er, as a whole; for, since the variation in the length 
of the natural night is inversely proportioned to that 
of the day, increasing as it diminishes, and diminish- 
ing as it increases, the union of the two gives a whole, 
the quantity of which is invariable. This whole, 
arising from the union of the natural day and night, 
is called the civil day fdies civilis, artificialis, vv/drj- 

[ASQOV.) 

In this arrangement it was a matter of indifference, 
whether the beginning of the civil day (epocham diei 
civilis) was placed at the rise of the sun above, its 
descent below, or at its highestjpoint of elevation above 
the horizon — in the morning, evening, or noonday. 

Some nations, as the Babylonians and ancient Per- 
sians, have considered the day as beginning with sun- 
rise, others, as the Jews, Arabs, and ancient Germans, 
with sunset. 

An ancient people of Italy, the Umbrians, chose 
the point, when the sun was on the meridian, or 



. 



18 INTRODUCTION 

noon, as the beginning of their day. Astronomers 
have regarded noon, as the most fitted for this pur- 
pose, because then the position of the sun, at its 
highest point above the horizon, serves to mark with 
the greatest precision the limit between the comple - 
ted and the incipient day. At this point, too, its posi- 
tion can be easily observed in all places and on almost 
every day, while, on the contrary, the varying times 
of the sun's rising and setting, with the clouds and 
fogs frequent at those times, render them, as points 
for the beginning of the diurnal revolution, indefinite, 
and difficult to be generally ascertained with pre- 
cision. 

Finally, the Romans began their day, with no re- 
gard to astronomical observation, at midnight, and to 
them it is probably to be ascribed, that this practise 
has become general among the European nations. 

This custom is unastronomical, because nature it- 
self furnishes no indication, by which that point in 
the revolution can be known. In order to ascertain 
it, artificial means, the division of the day into hours, 
and the use of time keepers, must have been in- 
vented. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 19 

6. Of Hours. 

Nature itself furnished very obvious suggestion^ for 
a [farther division of the day, according to the dif- 
ferent aspects of the sun, at its rise, its highest eleva- 
tion, its setting, &,c, The Romans had sixteen de- 
signations for so many divisions of a day and night 
taken together, grounded on the different gradations 
of light and darkness. 

But the necessity of having, in the busines of civil 
life, more accurate and precise divisions of the dav 
was long felt, before an instrument was invented for 
making a precise artificial division. The instruments 
first invented, and for a long time employed for this 
purpose, were very imperfect, such as the sundial, and 
hour glass, with either sand or water. Clocks and 
watches, which answer the purpose most perfectly, 
were not invented before the Middle Age, and 
watches not till the fifteenth century at Nurernburg. 

These artificial divisions of the day are called 
hours. Some ancient nations, as the Jews, the an_ 
cient Greeks, and the Romans, divided the natural 
day and the natural night separately, each into twelve 
hours. The hours of the day were consequently lon- 
ger in summer and shorter in winter, and those of the 
night the reverse of this. These unequal hours (horaa 
inaequales) are at variance with the purpose of a di« 






80 INTRODUCTION 

vision of the day into smaller portions, and the civil 
day was finally divided into twenty four equal hours 
(horae aequales.) This division, from its obvious 
convenience, has been adopted throughout Europe, 
and among the descendants of Europeans. They do 
not however number the twenty four hours in a con- 
tinuous series, but, beginning at midnight, when they 
commence the civil day, reckon from one to twelve 
at midday, and thence repeat from one to twelve at 
midnight. 

The Italians alone of the Europeans, down even 
to our own age, numbered the hours of the day in a 
continuous series from one to twenty four, beginning 
with sunset. This custom is now however discontin- 
ued in Italy. 

Astronomers also reckon in the same way, from 
one to twenty four, but commence from midday. 

The ancient Babylonians had at that early period 
divided the day into hours, but into twelve only, so 
that one Babylonian hour (hora Babylonica) was 
equal to two European of the present day. See Hero- 
dotus B. 11. C. 109. 

Remark 1. The striking of a clock, and the index 
of a watch, show, not the commencing, but the past 
hours. 

ft; A reason for numbering the hours from one to 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 21 

twelve and repeating it, instead of proceeding con- 
tinuously from one to twenty four, is to save the ear 
the pain of so great a number of strokes, and also to 
avoid the labour, and time, and inconvenience of 
counting so great a num ber. 

7. The divisions of an hour. 

Astronomers have divided the hours of the civil day 
into sixty equal parts each, which are called minutes, 
horary minutes (scrupula horaria or communia.) 

Each minute they divide again into sixty seconds 
(scrupula secunda,) and each second into sixty thirds. 
These minute divisions are important in astronomi- 
cal observations, but the historical chronologist has 
no occasion to employ them. 

Remark. Astronomers denominate the usual sub- 
divisions of hours horary minutes, to distinguish them 
from another division, which they sometimes employ, 
of the civil day into sixty equal parts, which are term- 
ed diurnal minutes (scrupula prima diurna.) 

8. The Year. 

The uninterrupted, and constantly regular, succes- 
sion of the seasons furnishes to all men the means of 
observing the duration or length of the year. Yet» 



2£ INTRODUCTION 

from the phaenomena obvious to common observation, 
it could only be determined vaguely, and within cer- 
tain indefinite limits, and the science of astronomy 
must have been carried to a high degree of perfection, 
before the following propositions could have been 
demonstrated, as they now are. 

1. That the length of the year is determined with 
precision by the motion of the sun from one of the 
tropics to the other, and its return to that from which 
it set out. 

2. That the true period of this revolution, and con- 
sequently the precise length of the solar year, is 365 
days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds, and 30 thirds, 
which, expressed in astronomical characters, is 365d, 
6h, 48/ 45," 30/" 

But, in the practical arrangements of civil society, 
it is obvious, that the commencement of the new year 
cannot be marked with such precision, as to deter* 
mine the hours, minutes &,c. Hence for civil pur- 
poses it is arranged that the year shall consist of 365 
days, till the repetition of the fraction shall amount 
to another day, and that then a day shall be added, so 
as to make a year of 366 days. This is termed in- 
tercalating a day, and the year, in which the day is 
intercalated, is called an intercalary on leap year (an- 
nus bissextus, intercalaris, embolimaeus ) The day 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 23 

bo inserted also is called an intercalary day (dies bis- 
gextus, &c.) The years, that are not intercalated are 
called for the sake of distinction common years (anni 
communes.) 

The year in its natural duration, as determined by 
astronomers, is termed the natural or astronomical 
year, that which is defined by legislation, or by cus- 
tom, a civil year (annus civilis.) 

Nature has left it to the arbitrary determination of 
men, where to place the commencement of the year, 
whether in Spring or Autumn, Summer or Winter. 
Legislators, and founders of civil institutions, have 
followed in this, each hi? own conception of propriety. 
Hence some nations commence their year in the 
Spring, and some in each of the other seasons. 

Remark 1. In the Latin language, the intercalary 
year and intercalary day are commonly denominated 
annus bissextilis, and dies bissextilis. But Ideler, in 
his "Historical enquiries respecting the astronomical 
observations of the Ancients," has already remarked, 
that the Romans used the form bissextus, instead of 
bissextilis. 

2. The natural Solar year above described Astron- 
omers denominate the Tropical Solar year, because it 
is described by the motion of the sun between the 
tropica. From the Tropical year they distinguish an- 



24 INTRODUCTION 

other, under the name of the Sidereal year, (annus 
sidereusj They understand by it the time, which 
the sun takes, not only to complete its tropical revo- 
lution, but also to arrive at the same star, at which it 
was observed at the beginning of its revolution. For, 
while the sun is performing its tropical circuit, the 
fixed stars also have had a motion of their own, such 
that in order to reach the one, from which the sun's 
revolution was commenced, it must advance still 20/ 
25/' 30/" farther. The sidereal year, therefore, is 
20/ 25," 30"' longer than the tropical— of this, how- 
ever, no practical use is made in historical chronol- 
ogy- 

9. Of the seasons of the year. 

The seasons, which by their influence on the air 
and earth, on animals and plants, must have attracted 
the notice of men from the earliest infancy of the 
race, have, however, in nature no precise and deter- 
minate beginning nor end, but only a r gradual transi- 
tion from one to the other. Astronomically the be- 
ginning of each is determined by the entrance of the 
sun into a particular sign of the Zodiack. Its en- 
trance into Aries determines, for the Northern hemis- 
phere, the commencement of Spring (the vernal Ae" 
quinox, Aequinoctium vernale,) but for the Southern 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 



95 



the commencement of Spring. With the entrance 
of the sun into Cancer begins, in the Northern hem., 
isphere, the Summer, in the Southern, the winter, 
while with its entrance into Capricorn the seasons are 
reversed in the different hemispheres. These two 
last points, the entrance of the sun into Cancer and 
Capricorn, are called Solstitial points, or the summer 
and winter Solstices (from sol, the sun, and sto, to 
stand still,) because the sun, in commencing from these 
points its returning course, seems for a while to be 
stationary in them, or because these points are the 
limits, beyond which its course does not extend. 

The four days, in which the sun enters these four 
signs, namely the 20th of March, in which it enters 
Aries, the 20th June, in which it enters Cancer, the 
22d September, in which it enters Libra, and the 21st 
December, in which it enters Capricorn, or the two 
Aequinoxes, and the two Solstices, are termed the 
four cardinal points of the year (puncta cardinalia. 

TQOTtat,.) 

Out of these four points nations from the earlies: 
times have selected the commencement of their civil 
year, some dating it from one, some from another 
of these, it being obviously a matter of arbitrary 
choice. 

3 



^ INTRODUCTION 

10, The division of the year into Months. 

{a) Lunar Months. 

The revolution of the Moon round the Earth, which 
it completes during a natural day and night, or in 
about 24 hours, has never been used, as a measure 
of time, because the period, which would be measured 
by it, is determined with more precision by the sun. 
But the revolution of the moon through the signs 
of the Ecliptick, duting which its phases are four times 
changed, has ever so attracted the notice of mankind, 
especially by this variation of its form, that they have 
at all times employed this revolution, or the number of 
days, in which these changes of the moon are com- 
pleted, as a convenient measure of time. 

These four phases of the moon, have been called the 
new moon, the first quarter, the full moon, and the last 
quarter, and the period from one new moon to another, 
a month. 

But the precise duration of this revolution of the 
moon can no more be determined^ without numerous 
and exact astronomical observations, than that of the 
annual revolution of the sun, Astronomers now 

reckon this Lunar period, or the Lunar month, at 29d, 

12h,44,'3,"12/" 

But since in common life we cannot reckon the 
smaller fractions, hours, minutes, &c, lawgivers have 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 27 

substituted the civil in place of the natural month, and 
made it to consist of a certain number of whole days. 
Civil months are differently limited by different na- 
tions; having with some an equal number of days 
for all, while with some again one month has more and 
another less. 

Remark. The month, as above described, embra- 
cing the interval from one new moon to another, as- 
tronomers distinguish as the sy nodical Lunar month, 
because the new moon is occasioned by the conjunc- 
tion (awodog) of the moon and sun in the same sign 
of the Ecliptick. The periodical Lunar month in- 
cludes the interval, during which the moon passes 
from a given point of the Ecliptick round to the same 
point again. This periodical Lunar month consists 
of 27d, 7h, 43/ 5," Of this no use is made in his- 
torical chronology. 

11. (b) Of Solar months. 

Along with the Lunar, astronomers have also adop- 
ted what are termed Solar months (menses Sol ares.) 
By a Solar month is meant that period of time, which 
the sun occupies in passing through each of the twelve 
signs of the Zodiack. But this period is not the 
same for the different signs, and the Solar mon.' s 
therefore would be different in length. In order to 






28 INTRODUCTION 

make theai of equal length astronomers have divided 
the whole time, in which the sun completes its revo- 
lution, equally among the twelve signs, and assigned 
to the several months an equal duration. Thus a So- 
lar month is precisely the twelfth part of a yea*, or of 
365d, 5h, 48/ 45," 30/" and consequently consist of 
SOd, lOh, 29/ 47," 30/" 

The legislators of some nations, among whom as- 
tronomical knowledge had been diffused, have had re- 
gard to the Solar in determining the civil month, 
while those of other nations have taken into view only 
the Lunar month. 

12. The Lunar Year, 

Some nations, who, in seeking the length of the 
year, have paid more regard to the revolutions of the 
moon, than to those of the sun, and who had remark- 
ed, that the year commences anew after about twelve 
Lunar revolutions, have adopted this as the measure 
of the year. Twelve complete revolutions of the 
moon, each from one new moon to another, constituted 
their year. 

Since the natural Lunar month, so determined, 
and reckoned with astronomical precision, consists 
as above stated of 29d, 12h, 44/ 3," 12/" the true 
duration of a natural Lunar year is 354d, 8h, 48/ 






TO CHRONOLOGT. 



** 



33," 1%"* The difference between this and the solar 

therefore, is as follows. 

The Solar year 365d, 5h, 43/ 45," 30," 
The Lunar year 354d, 8h, 48/ 38," 12/" 

Excess of the Solar lOd, 21h, 0/ 7," 18."' 

How the nations, who adopted the Lunar as their 
civil year, regulated it, in respect to the smaller di- 
visions of time, will be shown in some particular capes 
in the sequel. 

Remark. From the difference between a Lunar 
and Solar year it is obvious, that in 32 Solar there are 
33 Lunar years. For the lOd, 21 h &c, which are the 
excess of the Solar, make in 32 years 359d, 3h, 3(F 
&c, or 4d, l8h, 48' more, than a Lunar year. 

13. Of Weeks. 

The arbitrary division of time into weeks, whether 
of seven days (hebdomades,) or of eight (ogdoades,) 
or of ten (decades,) (for such have existed among 
different nations,) is very ancient. The week of 
seven days seems to have been the most ancient, and 
existed^at least among the Hebrews, from the earliest 
period. 

Yet the invention of this division of time is by soma 
also ascribej to the Chaldaeans, not a nation of that 



30 INTRODUCTION 

name, but the learned men at Babylon, who it would 
seem bore this name, as a title of distinction. 

The seven days, which compose the week, have been 
distinguished among many nations, from the most 
ancient periods, by the names of the seven planets, 
which were thought to compose our system, and this 
mode of distinction also is believed to have come from 
the learned men of Babylon. We shall say more of 
this in a more suitable connexion. 

The weekly period of seven days would be very 
naturally introduced among a people, who, in their di- 
vision of time, had more regard to the moon, than 
to the sun, and consequently had Lunar months and 
years. 

From the fourfold change of form, which the moon 
exhibits during a revolution, the division into weeks, 
is very obviously suggested, and, as the Lunar pe- 
riod consists of 29 days, the nearest division in- 
to quarters, which it admits, would give 7 days to 
each. 

But the adoption of this division also by nations, 
who use the Solar year and month, has occasion- 
ed in their divisions of time two inconveniences, 
which, accustomed as we are to them from child- 
hood, appear sufficiently obvious, but which, if now 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 31 

first introduced, we should find quite inadmissi- 
ble. 

1. The Solar year does not consist of an even num- 
ber of weeks, but has an excess of one or two days. 
The common year of 365 days has 52 week and 1 
day, every fourth or leap year of 366 days has 52 
weeks and 2 days. The year is at an end, while the 
week, which should be an included part of the year, 
has not yet terminated, and the new year falls con- 
tinually, in common years, one day, in leap years, 
two days later in the week, than in the preceding 
year. 

2. So too the months consist, not of a number of 
completed weeks, but of four weeks and some addi- 
tional days. 

In the sequel we shall meet with examples, in which 
nations have adopted the division into weeks of ten 
days, or decades, which is obviously more convenient, 
where they are united with Solar months, of a corres- 
ponding length. 

Remark It is obviously more convenient in all 
kinds of measurement to have but one standard, or 
element of quantity. As in reckoning the value of 
money and coin it is better to take either gold alone, 
of silver alone, as the standard, so also, for conven- 
iens in measuring time, it would be better to use 



83 INTRODUCTION 

only, the period of the sun's revolution, than to con- 
nect with this a second, like that of the moon, where 
the relations of the two are so difficult to be deter- 
mined. 

14. Forms of the year and Calendar. 

These are the divisions of time, as naturally mar- 
ked out by the revolutions of the sun and moon, ac- 
cording to the careful observation of astronomers in re- 
gard to their duration, and as established in the regu- 
lations of civil society. We have seen, that it is left 
to the arbitrary direction of lawgivers to determine, 
with what day the year shall commence, of how m any 
days a month shall consist, &c. These legal de- 
terminations and ordinances, taken together, con- 
stitute what is termed the form of the year (anni 
ratio, forma.) 

A Calendar or Almanac (calendarium, fasti) is a 
register or designation of all the days, weeks, and 
months, which make up a civil year, with a notice of 
— t. the days, which are legally appointed as festival 
(Jays — 2, natural or astronomical incidents worthy of 
notice, by which one day is distinguished from an- 
other, as the days of new and full moon, of the first 
and last quarter, of the aequinoxes, the solstices, the 
eclipses of the sun and moon, the ebb and flow of 
the tide, &c. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 33 

Remark. So far mathematical or astronomical chro- 
nology must be combined with historical, and they 
are inseparable from each other. Mathematical chro- 
nology could not give with precision the true magni- 
tude of those divisions, which are natural, without 
availing itself of the civil divisions of time. How 
time has been divided legally by different nations, we 
can learn only from testimony, or in other words his- 
torically. 

In what follows, the purpose will be only to ex- 
hibit what pertains to historical Chronology, and we 
shall aim— 1. to show the form of the year used among 
different nations, as determined by the founders of 
religious and civil institutions; — 2, tha important 
events, which have been fixed upon by different na- 
tions, as Epochs, or fixed points of time, from which 
they commence numbering the succession of years,, 
and finally— 3, to select a form of the year and an 
Epoch, as a standard, to which those of all nations 
may be reduced, in order to arrange, in accordance 
with those selected, the historical incidents of all na- 
tions and of all ages. 

15. The Julian Year. 

In order to obtain a distinct notion of the different 
forms of the year, which were used among ancient 



u 



INTRODUCTION 



nations, or are still in use elsewhere, it will be of ser- 
vice to exhibit, as a model for comparison, that with 
which we of European origin have been from our in- 
fancy familiar. We can then readily compare others 
with this, and mark their deviations, and can the more 
easily judge, whether those deviations are defects or 
the reverse. 

The form of the year in general use among the 
European nations, and those of European origin, may 
be termed the Juliano-Gregorian year or the Juliano- 
Gregorian Calendar, the Julian modified by Gre- 
gory. 

The name Julian Calendar, or Julian year, is giv- 
en, because this form of the year was introduced by 
the Roman dictator, Julius Caesar. All the nations 
of Europe, who were converted to Christianity, adop- 
ted this Calendar, and retained it, till the year 1532 
after the birth of Christ, About this time important 
improvements were made in it under the direction of 
Pope Gregory XITE, and this improved Calendar is 
called the Gregorian Calendar. 

Since that time it is usual to distinguish the origi- 
nal, formed by Julius Caesar, as the old Calendar, or 
oldstyh (annus or calendarium vetus, veteris stili,) 
and the improved one, as the new Calendar, or as 
New Style (annus, calendarium stili novi.) 



' 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 35 

In the Calendar, which Julius Caesar introduced, 
it was assumed, that the Solar year consisted of 365 
days and 6 full hours. Hence, as these 6 hours would 
make just a day in four years, a day was intercalated 
every fourth year making it a leap year of 366 days. 

The year thus determined was divided into twelve 
civil months, whose names January. February, &c, 
are sufficiently known, Seven of these months had 
each thirty one, four had thirty days, and February in 
common years twenty eight, but in leap years twenty 
nine days. 

It was a great inconvenience, that the months had 
not all an equal number of days, and still greater, 
that the longer and shorter follow each other by no 
rule. 

The beginning of the year was placed in the midst 
of the winter season, and this indeed could not of it- 
self be objected to, since it is matter of indifference, 
whether it be in the winter, or either of the other sea- 
sons. But that the shortest day of winter, or the win- 
ter Solstice, was not chosen, instead of the eighth day 
after that, as the first day of the year, may be con- 
sidered as transgressing astronomical principles. For 
as the revolution of the Sun, from one of the tropics 
round to the same point again, was to be the measure 
of the year, it would seem, that the year should com* 
inence, when this revolution commences. 



36 



INTRODUCTION 



We shall exhibit in the sequel the probable reasons, 
why Julius Caesar, against his better knowledge, 
found it advisable to admit these inconveniences into 
his Calendar. 

This Julian year was faither divided, not by Julius 
Caesar himself, but at a much later period, and after 
Christianity had become the prevailing religion, into 
fitfy two weeks, each of seven days. But, as these 
fifty two weeks give only 364 days, we have in com- 
mon years an excess of one, and in leap years of two 
days beyond the fifty two weeks. From this again 
the new incovenience arose, that the commencement 
of each newyeai fell, in common years one, and in 
leap year, two days later in the week, than in the 
preceding year. [For a farther account of this see 
section 49.] 

16. Essential defect of the Julian year. 

Besides the inconveniences above mentioned, the 
Julian year had a more essential defect. The length 
of the year, as assumed by it, was greater than its 
true length by 11,' 14," 30.'" This in the course of 
some hundred years amounted to several whole days, 
and in the 16th century it was observed, that new 
year's day fell, according to the calendar, about ten 
days later, than it should according to the course 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 



37 



of the sun. This variation of the Julian Calendar 
from the true Solar year was especially noticed in the 
celebration of the feast of Easter. According to a 
canon of the Nicene Council, Easter was to be cele- 
brated on the first Sunday after the full moon imme- 
diately succeeding the Vernal A equinox. This Ae- 
quinox ought to fall, according to the Julian Calen- 
dar, on the 21st of March, but it was observed in the 
16th century, that it was already ten days earlier 
than the 21st March as set down in the Calendar. 

After many attempts of Astronomers to remedy this 
error, Pope Gregory XIII gave it in charge to Aloysius 
Lilius, a man eminent in the science at that period, 
to reform the Calendar. The Calendar so reformed 
this Pope ordered in 1582 to be introduced throughout 
Christendom, and was immediately obeyed by the 
Catholic States: 

With the remedy of this error the Calendar was 
suffered to pass, the inconveniences before mentioned 
remaining as they were. 

17. The Gregorian Year. 

In order to bring back the year to an accordance 
with the place of the sun in its annual course, ten 
days were thrown out of the month of October in the 
year 1582, and thus the next new year's day in the 



38 INTRODUCTION 

Calendar made to coincide with the right point in the 
sun's motion. Immediately after the fourth of Octo- 
ber, instead of the fifth, was written the fifteenth, and 
this year therefore had but 355 days. 

To avoid the return of the same evil from the ex- 
cess of 11/ 14/' 30" in the Julian year above the true 
time, it was determined, that every hundredth year, 
for three centuries in succession, which according to 
the Julian Calendar, would be leap years, should be 
common years, but for the fourth century a leap year. 
According to this rule the years 1700, 1800 and 1900 
were to be common years instead of leap years, as 
t hey would have been by the Julian Calendar, but 
the year 2000 a leap year, and so for the last years of 
succeeding centuries, every fourth only will be a leap 
year. 

This improved Calendar, as above remarked, was 
adopted, at the requisition of the Pope, by all the 
Catholics states, and by those of Germany particularly 
at the Diet of Ratisbon in 1582. But the German 
Protestants at this Diet, as well as the Protestants 
generally throughout Europe, did not adopt it, because 
they were unwilling to give the appearance of being 
in any thing controlled by the authority of the Pope. 
The difficulty consequently arose of having among 
the states of Europe two different Calendars, the Cath- 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 39 

olics using the new, and the Protestants the old. In 
countries, where Catholics and Protestatnts lived to- 
gether in habit of intercourse, this difference in the 
mode of reckoning time occasioned great inconven- 
ience in the business of social life. The festivals, 
which were celebrated alike by both, were held by 
them at different times. All documents and letters 
must have a two-fold date, and even historians in re- 
cording events must give the day according to both 
Calendars, or in old and new style. Both days were 
usually given in the form of a fraction, as that an 
event happened on the |f of August, the 14th old 
style and the 24 new style. 

At length the Protestant's in Germany concluded 
no longer to reject the improved Calendar, and intro- 
duced it with the year 1700. But as the difference 
between the two Calendars, during an interval of 
more than a hundred years, was now increased to the 
amount of about one day, they rejected eleven days 
from the year 1700. In Febuary, which by the Julian 
Calendar should have had 29 days, only 18 were 
reckoned, and the 1st of March placed in the Calen- 
dar immediately after the 18th of February. 

Denmark, Holland and Switzerland now followed 
the example of the German Piotestants. England 
did the same in 1752, and Sweden in 1753. 



40 INTODUCTION 

The Russians are the only Christian nation in Eu- 
rope, which still retains the uiireformed Calendar. 

IS. Forms of the year, most worthy of notice, adop- 
ted by other nations. 

We shall now exhibit the forms of the year, or the 
Calendars, of some other nations of different periods, 
and first in Order those of the nations, w T hose history 
and literature have for us the greatest interest. 

19. The year of the Athenians. 

In aiming to exhibit only such Calendars as have 
an interest in literature and history, it will not be 
necessary for us to enquire what mode of reckoning 
existed among the most ancient Greeks. But the 
Attic year, or that of the Athenians, which was firs* 
introduced at Athens in the more advanced periods of 
Grecian culture, and supposed, on probable grounds, to 
have been gradually adopted by the other Grecian 
states, is of course a matter of literary interest, and 
important to be known. 

The introduction of this Calendar would seem to 
have taken place in the time of Solon, and probably 
through his means, about the year 590 before Christ- 
The Greeks had begun at this period to cultivate 
among other sciences, Mathematics and Astronomy, 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 41 

and yet it is probable, that they did not invent their 
Calendar by the help of their own science alone, but 
borrowed it from some nation of Asia, or at least had 
before them that of some Asiatic nation in the arrange- 
ment of their own. 

The Attic year was a Lunar year, commenced at 
the winter Solstice Jand was divided into twelve months 
having alternately 29 and 30 days. The three months, 
belonging to each quarter of the year, were distinguish- 
ed by an epithet designating the season. The follow- 
ing table shows the names and order of the months, 
and the number of days in each. 

The Winter months, {^veg x e ^ lB Q lV0,e -) 

Gamelion — . 29 days. 

Anthesterion — 30 — = 

Elaphebolion — 29 — 
The Spring months, (^vsg sagtvoi,,) 

Munichion — 30 days, 

Thargelion — 29 — 

Skirrophorion — 30 — 
The Summer months, ([irjveg Osqivoi.) 

Hecatombaeon — 29 days. 

Metageitnion — 30 — 

Boedromion -*■ 29 — 

4* 






42 INTRODUCTION 

The Autumnal months (fiqveg anugwoi,.) 

Maimakterion — 30 — 

Pyanepsion — - 29 — 

Poseideon — 30 

The Attic year had thus only 354 days. Obser- 
ving, however, that the Solar year was about eleven 
days longer than this, the Athenians added, every 
second year, another month of 22 days. It followed 
after the month Poseideon, and was named the second 
Poseideon, (nooeidewv dsvisgog.) These two years 
taken together, or cycle of two years, was called a 
Dieteris (diei7]Qig,) or in the Latin form a Biennium. 

The number of days in these two years was equal 
to the number in two Solar years, if we reckon only 
the entire days. But the Athenians observed also, 
that the Solar had an excess above the Lunar, not on- 
ly of the eleven whole days, but of an additional 
fraction of about a quarter of a day, At the end of 
every alternate biennium, therefore, or of every fourth, 
year, they added another day to the intercalary month 
making it a month of 23 days. This cycle they call- 
ed a Tetraeteris, (xsTgaej^gig,) or a Quadrennium, 

This cycle of four years gave 1461 days, equivalent 
to three common and one leap year of the Julian 
Calendar. 



43 

TO CHRONOLOGY. 

This method of intercalating was afterwards chan- 
ged, and a cycle of eight years adopted, called an 
Octaeteris, (oKiaei W g,) or Octennium. In this 
cycle a second month Poseideon of thirty days was 
added to the third, the fifth, and the eighth year. It 
contained 2922 days, or was equivalent to six com- 
mon and two leap years of the Julian Calendar. 

A year, to which the intercalary month was added, 
was called in Greek eviavrog B^ohfiaiog. 

As this Calendar was not strictly correct, reforms 
were proposed by Meton about 430, by Callippus 
about 330, and by Hipparchus about 150 before Christ, 
But since it is boubtful, whether their proposed re- 
forms were ever adopted and carried into effect, it 
seems unnecessary here to give a detailed account of 

them.* 

Remark 1. A cycle (xvxlog, cyclus, circulus, circle) 
designates a period or series of a determinate number 
of years^r other intervals of time, after the comple- 
tion of which the enumeration is commenced anew. 

2. We shall see in the sequel, that some very an- 
cient Oriental nations had much more perfect ap- 
proximations to the true Solar year, than this Lunar 
year of the Greeks. We must therefore admit, if we 
would not be blinded by prejudice in favour of the 

*See an account of the Metonic cycle in section 49. 



44 INTRODUCTION 

Greeks, that the Mathematical and Astronomical 
sciences were successfully cultivated at an earlier pe- 
riod by those Orientals, than by the Greeks, and that 
consequently the Greeks were not the pioneers in these 
sciences. 

20. Division of the month among the Greeks- 

The Greeks had no weeks of seven days, but di- 
vided the month into three decades (dexadeg,) or di- 
visions often days each. The first of these was call- 
ed the decade of the beginning of the months, (dexag 
fiijvo; l^afievov or ag/o/tisvov,) the second the decade 
of the middle (tn]vo; peaowioQ,) and the third the de- 
cade of the close of the month, (pyvog ydivoviog or 
aixioviog^ 

The first day in each month was called the new 
moon (Novinjvia,) or the Jirst. 

The nine following days were designated by the suc- 
cessive ordinals, as the second, third, Slc. with the 
addition of the beginning of the month. 

The nine first days of the second decade were de- 
signated as the first, second, &c, of the middle of the 
month, or otherwise after the tenth {em S&taS*';) 

The tenth of the second decade was called simply 
the twentieth (etaog?] or swag,) 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 45 

In the third decade the days were numbered in the 
reverse order. The twenty first day of the month was 
called, in months having thirty days, the tenth, in 
those having twenty nine, the ninth, the next the 
eighth &,c, of the close of the month, or the declining 
month. 

The last day of the month was called the old and 
new (hvrj xai ^e?/,) as if it belonged, half to the depart- 
ing, and half to the beginning month. 

The following table will give a clear conception Of 

I this very inconvenient mode of reckoning, which on- 

I ly early usage, it would seem, could make familiar or 

tolerable. It exhibits the successive days of the 

first month, in the Greek, the month Gamelion of 29 

I days. 

raf.irjliojv, Gamelion. 

1. NovpyvLu, the new moon, 

or 
ITgon?], the first "} 

2. JsvTsgrj, the second 

3. Tgni], the third 

4. TsTagTij, the fourth 

5. neuTCTTj, the fifth V 

6. c Ext?], the sixth 

7. c E3dofu?], the seventh 

8. Oydot/, the eighth 

9. Evvaxr h the ninth 

10. dexauj, the tenth 



fxijvog iga/Liavov 

or 

aoyoasvov, 

of the beginning of the 

month. 



or 



46 INTRODUCTION 

11. IIqoqtt], the first "] 

12. devj£Qi] f the second | 

13. Tgni] the third [xqvog [iscrovvwg, 

14. Texaqxi], the fourth j of the middle of the month 

15. ne/ujiTy, the fifth J> or 

16. e £x«7, the sixth em dexadi, 

17. 'Epdofiij, the seventh | after the tenth. 

18. Oydor] the eighth 

19. EvrccT?], the ninth J 

20. Eiy.ogi] or £V*as the twentieth, 

21. Ewaxr h the ninth 

22. Oydo?] > the eighth 

23. 'E l Sd'o l u?i } the seventh 

24. ^Tiy, the sixth 

25. IlepTtTT], the fifth f cctuovtoq, 

26. Tetuqti], the fourth | of the close of the month, 

27. T££T?y, the third | or the declining month. 

28. dsuT£Q/] y the second J 

29. y Ev7] xai vsi] } the old and new 

21. Division of the day among the Greeks. 

The Greeks, or at least the Athenians, began their 
civil day with the setting of the sun. They divided 
it into twelve equal (Babylonian) hours, and made 
use of sun-dials for measuring them. 

Both these, the hours and the sun-dials, probably 
the Greeks of Asia Minor, first received from some of 
the Asiatic nations, among whom the Babylonian cul- 
ture had been diffused. 

Anaximenes, a philosopher of the Ionian school, is 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 47 

said to have set up the first sun-dial at Sparta, about 
the year 555 before Christ. 

To supply the place of a dial at night and in cloudy 
weather, the Greeks had hourglasses, in which water 
was used instead of sand, Clepsydras (jfdeyvdgag.) 

22. The Macedonion Year. 

By this we are to understand — 1. the Calendar, 
which was used in Macedonia itself, till the time of 
Alexander, and perhaps still later, and — 2. those which 
were used in the Asiatic states founded by Alexander's 
Generals. 

The ancient and original Macedonian Calendar 
seems to have differed from the Athenian only in two 
particulars. The year began, not with the winter 
Solstice, but with the autumnal Aequinox, and the 
months had other names. 

The Macedonian months corresponded with the 
Athenian as follows. 

The Macedonian. The Athenian. 

1- Dios, 10. Maimakterion, 

2. Apellaeos, 11. Pyanepsion, 

3. Audinaeos, 12. Poseideon, 

4. Peritios, 1. Gamelion, 



48 INTRODUCTION 

5. Dystros, 2. Anthesterion, 

6. Xanthikos, - 3. Elaphebolion, 

7. Artemisios, 4. Munychion, 

8. Daisios, 5. Thargelion, 

9. Panemos, 6. Skirrophorion, 

10. Lo-os, 7. Hecatombaeon, 

11. Gorpiaeos, 8. Metageition, 

12. Hyperberetaeos, 9. Boedromion, 

In Demosthenes and Plutarch the time of certain 
events is sometimes given in the terms of this ancient 
Macedonian Calendar. 

After those states arose in Asia, in which the sev- 
eral Dynasties, that originated with the Generals of 
Alexander, bore rule, and in which the language, the 
customs, and the civil institutions of the Greeks were 
introduced, this Macedonian Calendar seems to have 
been there also the one in general use, at least in pub- 
lic documents and monuments. The original Asiatic 
nations, who came under the sway of the Macedoni- 
ans as the Syrians, the Babylonians, &c, may per- 
haps, among themselves, and in matters concerning 
themselves only, especially in the celebration of their 
festivals and stated religious ceremonials, have still 
made use of their own Calendars employed by their 
ancestors, 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 



49 



But, after all the Grecian conquests in Asia came 
under the dominion of the Romans, and after Julius 
Caesar had reformed the Roman Calendar, this was 
introduced in these parts of Asia, as in all the Roman 
provinces. Only the Macedonian names of months 
were retained, and the year was commenced on the 
2ith of September. This Calendar is also called the 
Macedonian, To distinguish it from the ancient it may 
be denominated the new Macedonian, 

It is necessary to be acquainted with the arrange- 
ments of this Calendar, in order to understand the 
Greek authors, who wrote after its introduction in 
Asia, and followed it in giving the dates of events. 

It stands related to the Julian Calendar as shown 
in the following table. 



/ 



Dios 

Apellaeos 

Audinaeos 

Peritios 

Dystros 

Xanthikos 

Artemisios 

Daisios 

Panemos 



fell on September 24. 

— — October 24. 

— — November 23. 

— — December 24. 

— — January 23. 

— — February 22. 

— — March 25. 

— — April 25. 

— — May 25, 



50 INTRODUCTION 

Lo-os 1 _ _ j une 2 5. 

Gorpiaeos 1 — — July 25. 

Hyperheretaeos 1 — — August 25. 
But under the dominion of the Romans even, and 
after the introduction of the Julian Calendar, some 
countries and states in Asia retained their ancient 
domestic Calendars, as may be seen from the coim 
of these countries.. 

23. The Roman Calendar before its reform by Ju- 
lius Caesar. 

The Roman year in use before the time of Caesar 
is said to have been introduced by Numa Pompilius 
but to have undergone some alterations in the time ol 
the Decemvirs. It was a Lunar ye ir, but consisted 
of 355 days. It was divided into 12 months, which 
till the time of the Decemvirs are said to have followed 
each other in the following order, 

1. January of 29 days 

2. March — 31 — 

3. April — 29 — 

4. May — 31 — 

5. June — 29 — 

6. Quintilis — 31 — 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 51 

7. Sextilis — 29 — 

8. September—- 29 — 

9. October — 31 — 

10. November— 29 — 
IK December — 29 — 
12. February— 28 — 

After the Decemvirate the order of the months was 
changed. The second month was called February , 
March was the third in order, and December the last. 
3o at least say ancient authors, who make mention of 
his subject. 

In order to make this Lunar year correspond with 
the Solar, a month was intercalated every second 
year of 22, and every fourth year one of 23 days. 

So far this cycle of intercalation agreed with the 
Tetraeteris of the Athenians, but, as the Roman year 
had one day more than the Attic, the four years of 
the Roman cycle gave 1465 days, which exceeds by 
four days both the Attic cycle and four Julian years. 

The intercalary month the Romans called Merce- 
donius or Mercidinus, and placed it between Februa- 
:y and March. 



52 



INTRODUCTION 



24- Confused state of the Roman Calendar before 
fhe time of Julius Caesar, 

The College of Priests, Collegium Pontificum, had 
the charge of arranging the Calendar for each new 
year, and so held, as the Romans expressed it, cus- 
todiam fastorum. These priests seem to have been 
quite destitute of astronomical science. Yet it was 
not from ignorance merely, that they made faulty 
Calendars, but from design, lengthening or shortening 
the year as they saw fit. "Instead of improving th e 
Calendar, as their official duty required," says an old 
Roman author, "they made it still more confused, by 
intercalating more or less, in order that a public ma- 
gistrate, according as he was friendly or otherwise to 
them, might go out of office earlier or later, that a fa- 
vorite farmer of the revenue might make the more 
gain, or a hated one suffer greater injury, from the 
extension or the abridgement of the year/ 5 * 

In an epistle to Atticus (V. 9,) Cicero begs this 
friend of his to oppose by every possible means the 
intercalation of the usual number of days in the then 
current year, in order that his (Cicero's) proconsul- 
ship in Cilicia might not be prolonged. 

*Horum (sacerdotumj plerique, ob odium vel gratiam, quo 
<luis magistratu citius abiret, diutiusve fungeretur, aut publici 
redemptor ex anni magnitudine in lucro damnove esset, plus 
minusve ex libidine intercalando, rem sibi ad corrigendam 
mandatam, ultro depravarunt. Censor, de dienatali c. 30. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 53 

By such caprices of these Calendar-makers, P a month 
was often transferred from one season to another, so 
that, according to the Calendar, the summer harvest 
fell in the autumnal months, and the vintage in the 
winter.* 

An epistle of Cicero to Atticus (X.17.) is, accor- 
ding to the Roman method of writing, dated XVII, 
Kal- Jun. or after our mode the 16th of May, and the 
Vernal Aequinox had not yet arrived. This letter 
Cicero wrote, when, after the breaking out of the civil 
war, he was going to join Pompey in Greece, and the 
Captain of the vessel was waiting for the Aequinox to 
be past. The Aequinox, says Cicero, holds on very 
tediously. 

25, Julius Caesar the author of the Julian Calen- 
dar. 

Julius Caesar put an end to these disorders. As 
Pont if ex Maxhnus it became his official duty to take 
charge of improving the Calendar, and his versatile 
genius was particularly inclined to the mathematical 
sciences and to astronomy. The poet, who excites our 
admiration, when he sets forth the genius, as he does 
our abhorrence, when he represents the ambitious 

* — ut neque messium feriae aestati, neque vindemiarum au- 
tumnus competerent. Sueton. in Jul. Caes. 40. 

5* 



54 INTRODUCTION 

deeds of Caesar, introduces him speaking as follows : 

Media inter proelia semper 
Stellarum coelique plagis superisque vacavi » 
Nee mens Eudoxi vincetur fastibus anni. 

Lucan. Phars. X. 4. 185. 

Plinius (H. M. XVIII. 25.) names Sosigenes, a 
Peripatetic at Alexandria, as the astronomer, who 
was specially employed by Caesar in this matter. 
Macrobius names still another, Marcus Flavins. He 
is termed a scribe, which was, "among the Romans, a 
common designation of all, who were employed by 
the Senate, or magistrates, or even by private per- 
sons x for drawing up written documents, for copying 
them, for keeping accounts, &c. 

It was in Caesar's fourth consulate, the year 709 
from the building of the city, and the year 45 before 
the birth of Christ, that the reformed Calendar was 
introduced. It was at once denominated by the Ro- 
mans in honour of its author the Julian ( and 
the form, which he gave to the year, the Julian year* 
The form itself we have given above (No. 15) 

*Ex hoc anno, a Julio Caesare ordinato. ceteri ad nostrain 
memoriam Juliani appelluntur, iique con:«urgunt ex quarto 
Oaesaris consulaiu. Ccnsorinus. 

From the same author we learn, that it was from a reference 
to certain festivals and religious ceremonies of the Romans 
appointed for stated days of the month, that Caesar gave to the- 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 55 

We only remark farther here, that, on the introduc- 
tion of the new Calendar, the name of the month 
Quintilis, in honour of Julius Caesar, was_ changed to 
Julius. The next month, Sextilis, still retained its 
former name, and was not changed into August till a 
later period, in honour of Augustus Caesar. 

26. Singular confusion of the year ?(H a. U. C. } in 
which preparation teas made for introducing the new 
idar.. 

The year 70S after the building of the city, by the 
disposition of which all the errors and confusion of the 

months so unequal a number of days, and had so little re- 
gard to that uumber in the order of their arrangement. Other- 
E it is probable, from his accurate judgment, that he would 
have preferred a more equal distribution of days, and a more 
regular arrangement in the order of succession. Censoriuus 
says on this point ; Itaque diebus CCCLV addidit X, quos per 
septem menses, qui dies undetricenos hahc hjant, ita dietribuit, ut 
Januario et Sextiliet Decembri bini accederent, ceteris singuli, 
artibus mensrum apppsuif, ne scilicet 
reiigiones sni cvjusque mentis a loco submoverentur . In this we 
recognize the of Caesar, that he preferred to endure 

slight imperfections, in the form of his year, rather than do vio- 
lence to ancient and deep rooted associations, usages, and 
habits, and by a needless misuse of power weaken the princi- 
ples of action in the minds of men. Ideler has expressed the 
very probable conjecture , that on similar grounds, and from re- 
spect for ancient usages, said to have been established by Nu- 
maPompilius, Caesar made his year commence where it does, 
instead of commencing at the winter Solstice, or the shortest 
day of the year, which would se.em to have been more conso- 
nant with astronomical principles. 



56 



INTRODUCTION 



old Calendar were to be removed, before the new ar- 
rangement could be introduced, was a very singular 
year. In this year not only the usual intercalarv 
month Mercedonius, or Mercidinus, of 23 days, but 
67 days more, to the amount of which the Roman 
year had now receded from the Solar year, were in- 
tercalated. The intercalation of these 67 days was 
between November and December, in two nameless 
months, the one of 34, the other of 33 days. This 
year had therefore 15 months, and 445 days. It was 
yet more singular, that the month Mercedonius was 
intercalated after the 23d of February, and after it 
followed the 5 remaining days of February. This 
vear deserved the name, given it by Macrobius (Saturn. 
1. 14,) of the year of confusion, annus confusionis. 

The subjoined table will exhibit more distiuctly to 
the eye the form of this extraordinary year. 

The year 708 afer the building of the city . 
Order and names of the Days of the reformed Cal- 
months with the number endar, on which the first 

of each month would 
have fallen. 

— The 13th of October of 
the year 47. before Christ. 

— 11 November. 

— 4 December. 



of their days. 

1. January of 29 days 



2. February — 23 

3. Mercedonius — 23 





TO CHRONOLOGY. O / 


February — 


5 — 27 December. 


4. March 


— 31 — 1 January of 46 before 




Christ, 


5. April 


— 29 — 1 February. 


6. May 


— 31 — 2 March. 


7. June 


— 29 — 2 April. 


8. Quintilis 


— 31 — 1 May. 


9. Sextilis 


— 29 — 1 June. 


10. September 


— 29 — 30 June. 


11. October 


— 31 - 29 July. 


12. November 


— 29 — 29 August. 


13. Intercalary 


— 34 — 27 September. 


14. Intercalary 


— 33 — 1 November. 


15. December 


— 29 — 3 December. 



445 days 
After the 29th December followed then the 1st Jan- 
uary of the year 709 after the building of Rome, or 
the 45th before the birth of Christ, and with this 1st 
of January the new Calendar went into use. 

27. Division of the month among the Romans, and 
their method of numbering the days of the month. 

The first day in every month was called the Cal~ 
ends. Kalendae, as Kalendae Januarii, Kalendae 



58 INTRODUCTION 

Februarii, &,c. The seventh day, in the four months 
March, May, July and October, were called Nonac, 
the Nones, and in the other eight months the fifth 
day had that name. In the four months above na- 
med l he fifteenth day was called, Idus, the Ides, in 
the other eight the thirteenth was so called. Thus 
every month was divided into three parts — 1st from 
the Calen-h to thz Nonis— 2d from the Nones to the 
Ides — 3d from the Ides to the Calends of the following 
month. 

In each division the days were numbered back- 
wards, with a reference to the end of that division, as 
the point from winch the days were counted. Thus 
the 4th before the Nones of January was reckoned 
from the Nones backwards, that being regarded as the 
dav, from which the numbering commenced, and as 
that was by our mode of reckoning the fifth, the fourth 
before it in our reckoning was the 2d of January. 

'I ne 5th before the Ides of January was our 9th of 
January. 

The 15th before the Calends of February was our 
18th of January. 

The day immediately preceding the Calends, Nones, 
and Ides was not expressed by a numeral, (the 2d 
before the Nones &c,) but 'by the word Pridie — Pridie 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 51 

Nonarum, Pridie Idus, Pridie Kalendarum— the da} 
before the Nones, &,c. 

- The following table will make this mode of reckon- 
ing more intelligible by two examples, the one the 
month of January, in which the Nones fell on the fifth 
and the Ides the 13, and t£je other the month of Marcl 
in which the Nones fell on the ?th and the Ides tht 
15th. ' 



)de o 


f numbei 


ring. 


Roman mode. 




J A 


NUAB Y. 


1. 


=b= 




Kalendae. 


2. 


= 




4 ante Nonas. 


3. 


■=. 




3 — — 


4. 


== 




Pridie Nonarum. 


5, 


= 




Nonae. 


6. 


=r 




8 ante Idas. 


7. 


= 




7 — — 


8. 


= 




6 — _ 


9. 


— 




5 — — 


10. 


== 




4 — — 


11. 


= 




3 — — 


12. 


5= 




Pridie Idus. 


13. 


■ — 




Id us. 





INTRODUCTION 


14. 


= 


19 ante Kalendas Februarii. 


15. 


= 


18 


— — 


16. 


= 


17 


— — 


17. 


4= 


16 


— — 


18. 


s= 


15 


— — 


19. 


25 


14 


— — 


20. 


= 


13 


— — 


21. 


i 


12 


— — 


22. 


= 


11 


— p 


23. 


= 


10 


— — 


24. 


= 


9 


— — 


25. 


= 


8 


— — 


26. 


= 


7 


— — 


27. 


= 


6 


— — 


28. 


= 


5 


«fc 


29. 


= 


4 


— — 


30. 


== 


2 


— — 


31. 


* = 


Pridie Kal. Februarii. 




Our mode. 


Roman 


mode. 




MARC H. 




1. 


= 


Kalendae Martii. 


2. 


= 


6; 


ante Nonas. 





TO CHRONOLOGY. 


3. 


= 


5 — — 


4. 


= 


4 — — 


5. 


= 


3 — — 


6. 


= 


Pridie Nonarum. 


7. 


= 


Noaae. 


8. 


= 


8 ante Idua. 


9. 


= 


7 — 


lO- 


= 


6 — — ' 


ll. 


= 


5 — — 


13. 


= 


4 _ _ 


13. 


— 


3 — — 


14. 


= 


Pridie Idus. 


15. 


= 


Idus. 


16. 


= 


17anteKal.Aprilis. 


17. 


= 


16 — — 


18. 


«= 


15 — — 


19. 


= 


14 — — 


20. 


s= 


13 — — 


21. 


= 


12 — - 


22. 


== 


11 — — 


23. 


= 


10 — — 


24. 


C3 


9 — — 



61 



6 



6,2 INTRODUCTION 

25. = 8 -— — 

26. == 7 — — 

27. = 6 — — 

28. = 5 — — 

29. = 4 — — 

30. = 3 — — 

31. = Pridie Kalendarum ] 

Aprilis. 

Remark. 1. The etymology and signification of 
these three terms is unknown. According to Macro- 
bius (Saturn. XV.) the Pontifex, after summoning the 
people to the capitol, proclaimed to them with a loud 
voice, that the new month was begun, and that so many 
days, as the case might be, would intervene before the 
Nones. This proclamation was at that time designa- 
ted by a Greek term, adopted into the Latin, Kalare 
(xaksw.) The meaning of Kalendae may be, there- 
fore, the proclamation day. 

The term Nonae is said by the same author to be 
derived from dies nonus, the ninth day, the Nones be- 
ing nine days before the Ides. 

Of the word ldus Macrobius gives two possible de- 
rivations, and two possible grounds for the application 
of it in this case. According to one mode ldus comes 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 63 

from videre, and this properly from the Greek ideiv (to 
see,) and this day was originally so designated, be- 
cause, at that time of the Lunar month, the moon 
could be seen in its full form (the full moon.) Ac- 
cording to the other mode of forming it, the word 
comes from one in the ancient Etruscan, which at the 
time when these names were first used, was adopted 
into the Latin, This word was iduare, to divide, 
and was applied here, because the Ides fall near the 
middle of the month, and divide it into two nearly 
equal parts. 

2. The Romans were accustomed to this mode of 
reckoning from their childhood, and by early practise 
the most difficult task becomes easy, while the most 
capricious and absurd customs come to seem natural 
and rational. But that philologists and antiquarians, 
from the 16th century nearly to our own times, should 
have preferred this Roman mode of reckoning to the 
natural and rational one adopted in our present Cal- 
endars, was a pedantry deserving the severe satire 
which Wolf has bestowed upon it in his Latin Chro- 
nology. 

3. This seems to be the most suitable place to give 
some account of the origin of our present customary 
division of the month into weeks, and of the names, by 
which the several days of the week are distinguished. 



64 INTRODUCTION 

The Romans had no weeks. The division of the 
month into three parts, by Nones, Ides, and Kalends, 
was the only one known among them, and this was 
retained, not only while Rome continued Pagan, but 
long after it became Christian. Ammianus Marcel- 
linus, who wrote about half a century after Christiani- 
ty had become the religion of the State, reckons the 
days of the month by Kalends, Nones, and Lies. The 
constitutions of a Christian emperor, even those of 
Justinian I, in the Corpus Juris, are dated after the 
aame manner. 

Weeks were introduced by the Christians, and these 
received them from the Jews, the first Christians hav- 
ing themselves been Jews. The only deviation from 
the Jewish week was, that, instead of the seventh, 
the sabbath of the Jews, the Christians kept sa- 
cred the first day of the week, as a memorial, that 
Christ rose from the dead on that day, and hence 
called it the Lord's day (dies Dominca.) On this 
day the Christian churches (the ecclesiae) met for 
mutual edification, for celebrating the eucharist, &c. 
And thus, in their religious concerns, this mode of 
reckoning time, by weeks of seven days each, had be- 
come customary with them, while yet they were ob- 
jects of persecution to their Pagan rules. After they 
had gained the victory over Paganism and abolished 
it, they gradually introduced the division by weeks 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 65 

into the regulations of civil life, and dropped the old 
Roman method of reckoning the days of the month. 
When and how this took place, as to the details of its 
history, is wholly unknown. 

As regards the names of the several days of the 
week, Monday, Tuesday, (diesLunae, Martis &c.) it 
is altogether improbable, that the Christians employed 
them on the first introduction of weeks into* the Cal- 
endar. Whatever had any connexion with the names 
and worship of the Pagan Gods was their abomina- 
tion. But in the course of some centuries the Pagan 
worship had so fallen into oblivion, that it was no 
longer known, among the new generations of men, in 
what it consisted, and the names connected with it 
had ceased to have their original associations and of- 
fensive import. Among the monks, whose business 
it became to attend to the regulation of the Calendar, 
especially for the use of the church, there were many, 
who had a taste for astronomical studies, and who 
therefore pursued every kind of knowledge, which 
was connected with the astronomy of the ancients. 
The Chaldaeans, i. e. the astronomers or astrologers of 
Babylon, were celebrated, as having been the greatest 
astronomers of antiquity, and from these the monki 
adopted the astrological chimera, that each day of the 
week was under the influence of one of the seven 
*6 



66 



INTODUCTION 



planets, which were then considered as composing 
our planetary system. The monks, therefore, had no 
scruples of conscience against naming the days of the 
week after the seven planets, as they had been named 
by the Babylonian Astrologers. The names Jupiter, 
Mars, Mercurius, Venus and Saturnus, in the designa- 
tion of the days,as dies Jovis, Martis &,c* were re- 
garded by them, not as names of heathen Gods, but as 
names of the planets. 

In regard to the origin of this division of time 
among the Germans and other northen nations, and 
the names of the days in the German, Dutch, Danish, 
and other languages, there are different opinions. — 
Soine suppose, that the division into weeks was in 
use among all these nations in very ancient times. — 
Kastner adopted the opinion, that it was a remnant 
among them of the religion of the Patriarchs, to whom 

*The Latin names of the days of the week used .where the 
Latin language has been employed by the learned in modern 
times, are dies Solis (sunday,) dies Lunae (monday,) dies Mar- 
tis (tuesday,) dies Mereurii (Wednesday J dies Jovis (thursday) 
dies Veneris (friday,) dies Saturni (Saturday.] 

The English names are taken, for sunday and monday, ob- 
viously as in the Latin, from the Sun and Moon, and, for the 
four next following, from the objects of worship among the 
Northern nations, most nearly corresponding with those, from 
which they were named in the Latin. These were Tuu, 
Woden or Odin, Thor and Freya, answering respectively to 
Mars, Mercury, Jupiter and Venus. Saturday is probably, as 
in Latin, derived from Saturn, though some say from a Saxon 
Idol of a similar name. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 67 

it had served as a memorial of the creation of the 
world. 

At the same time it is assumed, that in process of 
time the original purpose of the division was forgotten- 
These nations became sunk in Idolatry, and named 
the days of the week after the objects of their idola- 
trous worship. Thor the God of thunder, Odin or 
Wodin the God of war, Freya the Goddess of pleas- 
ure, &c. 

But is it susceptible of proof, that the division by 
weeks was in use among these nations, before their 
conversion to Christianity 1 To me it would seem, 
that so remarkable a fact in the economy of the Ger- 
mans must have attracted the notice of the Romans, 
and that Tacitus could not have failed to mention it. 

My own opinion is, that weeks were first introdu- 
ced among these nations along with Christianity, and 
that Christianity gave a very natural occasion for 
their introduction, since all the religious feast and 
fast days, which recur after weekly intervals, and es- 
pecially Sunday and Friday, rendered this division 
nearly indispensable. 

Since now the Christian Ecclesiastics, in the Latin 
language, which they employed in their religious ser- 
vices, designated the days of the week by the names 
of Jupiter Mars, Venus, &c, they naturally were less 



68 INTRODUCTION 

scrupulous in seeking, in the languages of these na- 
tions, for the names of those among the objects o* 
their ancient worship, which had any resemblance 
to these Roman divinities, and in thus marking the 
days of the week in their languages, in the same way, 
as had been adopted in the Latin language. 

28. Division of the day and night among the Ro- 
mans. 

Before the Romans introduced the artificial divis- 
ion of the day into hours, they distinguished the parts 
of the natural day and night according to obvious ap- 
pearances in nature. No less than sixteen terms of 
distinction are found in Roman authors, by which 
the different parts of the day and night were desig- 
nated. 

Media nox (midnight) —mediae noctis inclinatio 
(after midnight)— Gallicinium (cock-crowing) — Con- 

ticinium ( )— Diluculura (the dawn of dayj — 

Mane (sunrise)— Ad meridiem ("towards noon)— Me- 
ridies (mid-day)— Meridiei inclinatio (afternoon)— 
Solis occasus ^sunset,)— Vesper (evening)— Crepus- 
eulum (the dusk) -Prima fax (candle-lighting)— 
Goncubium (bed-time)— Nox intempesta (dark night) 
—Ad mediam noctem (near midnight.) 

This natural division see-nas to have answered the 



TO CHKOSOLOGY. 69 

purpose of the Romans for more than four hundred 
years. It was not till about the year 460 from the 
building of the city, that the first sun-dial is said to 
have been brought to Rome from the conquered Gre- 
cian colonies in Italy, and about the year 590 Scipio 
Nasicais said to have caused hour-glasses (clepsydrae) 
to be set up in public places, especially in the judicial 
tribunals. 

In later times the wealthy and powerful bad such 
in their private houses, and employed a slave for the 
special office of calling out the hours as they elapsed- 

How many and how great conveniences, in the 
business and social intercourse of life, accrue to us 
from inventions, which must have cost their authors 
much reflection time and patience, but which have 
become to us of habitual and daily use, we are scarcely 
able to estimate, or rightly to appreciate their worth. 
The inventors of the clock and watch are forgotten, 
by the thankless generations, that have come after 
them, while the inventors of the instruments of calam 
ity and death are held in remembrance and honour, 

29. The year of the Jews. 

What form of the year was in use among the Jews, 
before they came into Canaan, is uncertain. During 






TO INTRODUCTION 

their sojourn in Egypt, they were probably regulated 
in their mode of reckoning by the Egyptian Calendar. 

^fter they became an independant people in Ca- 
naan, until the loss of their independance, or until the 
so-called Babylonian captivity, they used a Lunar 
year of 354 days. It was divided into 12 months as 
follows. 

1. Abib or Nisan 29 days. 

2. Tziv or Ijar 30 — 

3. Sivan 29 — 

4. Thammuz 30 — 
5 Ab 29 — 

6. Elul 30 — 

7. Tisri or Aethamim 29 — 

8. Bui or Marchesvan 30 — 

9. Chisleu 29 ~ 

10. Thebet 30 — 

11. Schabat 29 — . 

12. Adar 30 — 

They began the year with the month Abib, in com- 
memoration of their exodus from Egypt in that month. 
It was a religious rite amono them to make an offer- 
ing to God of the first ripe ears of barley during the 
first ten days of this month. But since, in so imper- 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 



71 



feet a year of 354 clays, the harvest would happen 
continually later in the Calendar, they must judge, in 
the last month of the year, by looking upon their fields, 
whether they would have ripe barley in the next month 
Abib. If the time of harvest seemed yet too remote, 
they added at the end of the year an intercalary month 
of 30 days, which was called Ve-Adar, or the second 
Adar, This leap year had thus 384 days. The in- 
tercalation, we perceive, was determined by observing 
the natural period of vegetation, and from authentic 
accounts of travellers we know, that in Palestine bar- 
ley comes to maturity about the time of the Vernal 
Aequinox. At this period, therefore, the ancient 
Jewish year commenced. 

After their return from the Babylonish captivity, 
the Jews retained the Babylonian or Chaldee names 
of the months, which they had adopted during that 
period. What other changes the Jews afterwards 
made in their Calendar, under the influence of the 
foreign nations, to which they were subjected, can in- 
terest only those literary men, who seek a minute ac- 
quaintance with the manners and customs of the Jews, 
in the different periods of their history. 

Through the Talmud, which was completed about 
the year 500 of the Christian Era, the Jewish year 
received a new form, which from that time they re- 
tained merely for the purpose of their festivals aud 



72 INTRODUCTION 

religious rites. A knowledge of this form can in like 
manner be of importance only to a few literary men. 

30- The weeks of the Jews, and their division of 
the day. 

The Jews had weeks of seven days, the seventh 
of which was the Sabbath (day of rest.) On this they 
must abstain from all work, in remembranc of God'a 
having rested on the seventh day, after he had in six 
days finished the work of creation. 

It does not appear, that the other six days were de- 
signated by particular names. 

An artificial division of the day into hours does not 
eeem to have been in use among the Jews in ancient 
times, since in their ancient writings, the parts of the 
day are marked only by natural characters. Men- 
tion is indeed made of a Sun-dial (2 Kings 20; 9. 
and Isa. 38, 8.,) but in such a manner, that it would 
seem to have been something extraordinary, or per- 
haps the only one, and that they were by no means in 
common use. 

The hours mentioned in the New Testament (as in 
Matth. 27, 45. 46. Mark 15, 25.,) the Jews adopted 
from the Greeks and Romans. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 73 

31. Th'i year of the Egyptians. 

No other people had, in their natural situation, so 
many favourable circumstances to guide them to a 
knowledge of the true length of the Solar year, as the 
Egyptians. Natural incidents of the most striking 
character called their attention to it, and aided in its 
determination. 

The first of these deserving notice was the annual 
overflow of the Nile, and the regularity of its recur- 
rence, a second was the invariable winds (the Etesiae) 
at certain seasons of the year, a third the regular 
disappearance and return of certain fixed stars, which 
by their brilliant sparkling, in an atmosphere almost 
constantly pure, were objects strikingly fitted to at- 
tract observation, especially Sirius, or the Dog-star, 
which rose according to our Calendar about the last 
of July. Lastly the city Syene (now Assuan,) on the 
Southern border of Egypt next to Ethiopia, is said to 
have been situated directly under the Tropic of Can- 
cer. The sun, consequently, at noon, on the day of 
the summer Solstice, was vertical to the inhabitants, 
and cast no shadow. A well in the city, also at mid- 
day received the direct rays of the sun upon its bot- 
tom (Plin. H. N. II, 75.) 

That the Egyptian priests too knew the true dara 
7 



74 



INTRODUCTION 



tion of the Solar year, and that it was not only fc *G5 
days, but about one fourth of a day more than this, is 
admitted by all enquirers into antiquity. But whether 
the Egyptians made any use of this knowledge for the 
regulation of their civil year, and whether they had 
common years of 365, with leap years of 366 days, 
the learned are not agreed. 

That they had such in regular interchange, and 
*hus a perfect civil year, the following proofs have 
been adduced. 

Diodorus Siculus says, "The Thebans" (the inhab- 
habitants ofthr city Thebes, or only the piiests there 
may be understood,) "added to the 12 months five days 
and one fourth of a day." (nevie rj/uegag xou leiagior, 
Diod Sic. 1, 50. 

Strabo says, " The priests at Thebes are pariicularly 
celebrated for their knowledge of astronomy and phi- 
losophy. They bring into their reckoning of the year 
the parts of a day, over the 365 days, which are ne- 
cessary *o make up the entire year." The sense of 
these words can be no other, than that, when those 
parts of a day amounted to a whole one, the priests 
intercalated it in the following year. (Strabo XVII, 
554.) 

Horapollo asserts, that "from one rising of Sirius to 
another is a year of God, (i. e. of the Sun) of three 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 



75 



hundred five and sixty days and one fourth of a day, 
and, consequently, in every cycle of four years (tct- 
QccsTTiQidi) one day more is reckoned" (Horap. 1. 15.) 

The following arguments have been offered to prove 
that the Egyptians had not a perfect civil year, and 
that they had no intercalation in their civil years. 

The proofs of the opposite opinion, advanced above 
are thought to be invalidated by the remark, that in 
Diodorus and Strabo it is obviously only the priests at 
Thebes, who are spoken of, and, since the knowledge 
spoken of is ascribed only to the priests, it follows from 
this very circumstance, that this more perfect form 
of the year was not in use in the business of civil life. 
As to the other author, Horapollo, he wrote at a period 
(after the birth of Christ,) when the Julian Calendar 
had been introduced into Egypt. 
A passage in Herodotus also is appealed to, in which 
he says, (according to Idelers translation of it) "They 
(the Egyptian priests) assured me unanimously, that 
the Egyptians had of all men first found out the year, 
and divided it into twelve divisions, and they siy that 
they attained this knowledge by means of the Sun. In 
my opinion they proceed in this with more insight 
than the Greeks, who intercalate a month in every al- 
ternate year. The Egyptians on the contrary add 
everv vear. to their twelve months of thirty days, vet 



76 INTRODUCTION 

five supernumerary days, and so their seasons return j 
in a regular circle." If the Egyptians are supposed 
at that time already to have introduced the leap year, 
it can hardly be doubted, that the priests- would have 
mentioned it to Herodotus, and that he would have 
spoken of it, since the Greek intercalary month gave 
him so natural an occasion for doing so. 

Finally it is an undoubted fact, that the Egyptians 
under the Ptolemies had only common, and no leap 
years, and it is not easy to see, if leap years had pre- 
viously been in use among them, when and why they 
were dropped, and wherefore an imperfect was intro- 
duced in the place of a much more perfect form of 
the year. 

Gatterer, indeed, who had formed a very elevated 
Conception r.f the culture of the Egyptians, and who 
ascribed to them in those early times the most perfect 
Solar year, would controvert this objection by an hy- 
pothesis. The Persians, he supposes, after they con- 
quered Egypt, had rejected the more perfect Egyp- 
tian year, and introduced their own defective one. 
But in the fiist place it is not certain, that the year 
of the Persians was defective, it is even probable, as 
we shall see in the sequel, that the ancient Persians 
had a very perfect Solar year. What motive moreove r 
could the Persians have to impose upon the Egyp- 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 77 

tians an inferior Calendar, when they had found a bet- 
ter one among them, especially as in other mattenr 
they left to the Egyptians the enjoyment of all their 
ancient manners and customs, so far as they were 
compatible with Persian supremacy, even their idol 
worship, though it was an abomination in the eyes of 
the Persians. 

These facts and arguments seem rather to prepon- 
derate, and induce the conclusion, that a Solar year 
was not at least in general use. 

The civil year of the Egyptians, under the Ptolemies 
(probably also in earlier times,) was divided into 12 
months of 30 days each. The Egyptian names of 
the months are found in Ptolemy, and also in a Greek 
epigram, where they are distinguished by their natural 
characters. (Brunck Anal. vet. poet. Graec. II. p. 
510.) They are as follows. 

1. Thoth. 5. Tybi. 9. Pachon. 

2. Phaophi. 6. Mechir. 10. Pauni. 

3. Athyr. 7. Phamenoth. 11. Epiphi. 
4 Chojak. 8. Pharmuth. 12. Mesori. 
As these contained only 360 days, the Egyptian! 

added at the close of the last month 5 days, which 

Ptolemy calls \uegcxg envy oiis rag (supplementary days.) 

The rising of Sirius, the D g-star, or his reappear 






78 INTRODUCTION 

ance in the horizon, in our Calendar about the last of 
July, was the astronomical incident adopted by the 
ancient Egyptians to mark the beginning of the new 
year. This star was called, in their language, T/wth, 
and this name they gave to the first month, and to the 
first day of the year. 

But as their civil year was about one fourth of a 
day, and four of these years, consequently, one whole 
day too short, their Thoth, or new year's day, came 
every four years about 1, and every hundred years 
about 25 days, earlier than the rising of Sinus, and 
thus their new year's day, in the course of a few cen- 
turies, receded through a whole year. 

After Egypt became a Roman province, the Julian 
year, under the Emperor Augustus, was introduced at 
Alexandria, and among the Greeks and Romans in- 
habiting Egypt, so far as to make every fourth a leap 
year. The old Egyptian names of the months, with 
30 as the number of days in each, and the 5 supple- 
mentary days at the end of the last month, were re- 
tained. But as the New Year's day, in the year 
when the Julian Calendar was thus introduced, fell on 
the 29th August by our Calendar, this continued to be 
the commencement of the year after that time in 
Egypt. 

This Julian year, so modified in Egypt, is known 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 79 

among authors as the Alexandrian year , because it was 
introduced only at Alexandria, and among the Greeks 
and Romans in Egypt. The native Egyptians continu- 
ed to adhere to their common, without the quadriennial 
leap year, as we learn from two very credible authors. 
Censorinus, who lived in the 3d century of our Era, 
says that then the Egyptians had no leap year. Annus 
Egyptiarum civiles habet 395 dies, sine ullo interca- 
lari. The other author is Theon of the 4th century, 
from whom only a fragment is extant. " Since the 
year of the Alexandrians contains 365^- days, but that 
of the Egyptians only 365, it is clear that the Alexan- 
drian year, in comparison with the Egyptian, has an 
excess of about one day in every four years, and in 1460 
years about 365 days or one whole Egyptian year. " 
The Alexandrian year, or the regular interchange 
of common and leap years, may probably have been 
introduced among the native Egyptians after they 
became Christians. 

32. The year of the Babylonians or Chaldeans, 
called also the Nabonassarian year. 

The primitive nation, that we are accustomed to 
call Babylonians or Chaldeans, and which was so cele- 
brated in ancient times for its astronomical knowledge, 
had nevertheless an imperfect civil year, or a common 



80 - INTRODUCTION 

year only of 365 days. It was therefore, like the 
Egyptian, what astronomers call a wandering or am- 
bulatory year (annus vagus.) For since the new 
year's day came every fourth year one day earlier, than 
it should to coincide with the true Solar year, it would 
of course wander gradually, in the course of 1460 
years, through all the days in the year. 

But this imperfection of their year is no sufficient 
ground for calling in question the astronomical sci» 
ence of the Babylonians. Experience has taught, 
that there are many difficulties in the way of reform- 
ing, accoiding to astronomical principles, the civil 
year, to which a people have been for centuries ac- 
customed. 

The name Nubonassarian, which chronologists and 
astronomers have given to this Babylonian year, had 
an origin, of which we can more properly given an ac- 
count in the sequel. 

The Babylonians, like the Egyptians, divided their 
year into 12 months of 30 days each, and added, at 
the end of the last, 5 days for the completion of th« 
year. 

Some regard the Chaldaeans, or in other words the 
astronomers at Babylon, as having invented the divis 
ion into weeks, and named the days of the week after 
the seven planets. But weeks of seven days were in 



INTRODUCTION 81 

use among several nations, equally ancient with the 
Babylonians, ase. g. the Jews and Arabians, withou 
the names of the days. The use of this division seems 
indeed, to have been much earlier, than the names of 
the several days of the week. The names may per- 
haps have been first given by the astronomers of 
Babylon, 

The Babylonians began their civil day with the ri- 
sing of the sun, and divided it into twelve equal hours, 
one of which is, therefore, equal to two of the division, 
to which we are accustomed. They are still termed 
by astronomers Babylonian hours. Sun-dials were in 
use among the Babylonians. 

33. A very perfect form of the year, in use (prob- 
ably) among the ancient Persians. 

Among the Persians a form of the year was onca 
in use, which has been considered by astronomers one 
of the most perfect, 

It had common years of 385, and leap years of 388 
days, and so far coincided with our form of the Julian 
year. But the mode of intercalation was, in the judg- 
ment of astronomers, better than ours. The time and 
mode of intercalating was reckoned with such accu_ 
racy, that the first day of the year always fell on the 
day of the Vernal Aequinox. The year had twelve 






82 TO CHRONOLOGY. 

equal months of 30 days each, and an intercalation at 
the end of common years of S, at the end of leap years 
of 6 days. 

The existence of such a Calendar proves, among 
the people where it .was introduced, a very successful 
cultivation of astronomy. The question now is, in 
what century was this used in Persia ? Was it in the 
highest periods of antiquity ? or was it first introduc- 
ed after the Christian Era ? 

It is an undoubted historical fact, that Malek 
Schah, or as he was also called Djelaleddin, king of 
Persia, of the Seldjukian dynasty, in a certain sense 
introduced this Calendarin Persia, towards the end of 
the 11th century of our Era, and hence this form of 
the year is called by astronomers and chronologists 
the year of Djelaleddin. 

But in what sense are we to understand him as in- 
troducing it? 

It is not probable, that Malek Schah made this the 
eivil year of the Persians; for 1. he was a Mohamme- 
dan, and the Arabians, in all the countries, which 
they conquered, introduced the Lunar year along with 
their religion. Since they conquered Persia, it has 
there also become the civil year. 2. If Malek Schah 
had made his Solar year the civil year of the Persians, 



INTODUCTION 83 

then it must have been again rejected, and the Ara- 
bian Lunar year introduced, for in every age, since the 
time of that prince, the Persians have made use of the 
Lunar year for their civil reckoning. Mention too 
would have been made of this recurrence to the Lu- 
nar year, by some of the oriental authors, who speak 
of this year, but no such mention occurs. 

It seems probable then, that the year of Djelaleddin 
was introduced only by astronomers, to be used in 
their scientific pursuits. At that time the sciences of 
the Arabians were still flourishing in the East, and 
there were some among the Mohammedan princes of 
the middle age, even those of Turkish and Mongolian 
descent, who loved and cherished these sciences. As- 
tronomy, combined indeed with astrology, was a 
favorite science with these princes, Malek Schah 
was one of the most distinguished for his love of sci- 
ence, and astronomy was with him also a special fa- 
vorite. Oriental authors relate, that he summoned 
together an assembly of all the astronomers, and with 
them brought his Solar year to perfection. 

This Calendar of Djelaleddin is most fully treated 
of by Thomas Hyde, in his work de Religione vet. 
Persar.c. 14. — 16. In the 16th chapter p. 200— 
211. he give many passages from Persian and Arabian 
writers, which relate to this interesting subject. Be 



84 TO CM RONOLOGY. 

gives them in the original languages, and adds a Latin 
translation. Judging from the translations (for I do 
not understand the originals,) these passages them* 
selves render it probable, that the Solar year was used 
only by the astronomers. At least its introduction, as 
the mode of reckoning, in civil life, is not mentioned, 
as we might presume it would have been, had it taken 
place, and had the Lunar year, adopted by all the 
Mohammedan nations, and so closely connected with 
their religious worship, been here thrown out of use. 
One circumstance renders it probable, that Malek 
Schah and his astronomers did not even first find out 
this Solar year, but that it had been in use before in 
Persia, perhaps introduced even in the time of Zoro- 
aster, and not. yet forgotten since the introduction of 
the Mohammedan year. According to the accounts 
of credible travellers, the day of the Vernal Aequinox 
is a popular festival among the Persians, especially in 
the country, and at the same time has no relation to 
their present Mohammedan religion. They call this 
day also Naurus, which word is said to mean new-year's 
day. As it is a very ancient festival, we may, with 
great probability at least, conclude, that at some pe- 
riod the civil year in Persia began on this day, and 
this festival may have led Malek Schah and his as- 
tronomers to commence their more accurate Calendar 
at the same time. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 



85 



34. The Lunar year of the Arabians introduced 
among all Mohammedan nations. 

The civil year of the Arabians, that is introduced 
among all the nations, who adopted the religion of 
Mohammed, is a Lunar year, in the arrangement of 
which no regard was had to the Solar year. It con- 
sists of 354 days. ^ But, after the Arabians studied 
astronomy, they found, that the true Lunar year has 
an excess of 8h. 48' over the 354 days, and that these 
8h. 48' multiplied by 30 make about 11 days. The 
observation of these facts led the Arabian Astronomers 
to a method of intercalating this fraction of time, af- 
ter it amounted to an entire day. They adopted a 
cycle of 30 years, in which they made 11 intercala- 
tions of one day. There were consequently in the 
cycle 11 leap years of 355 days, the remainder being 
common years of 354, This cycle was received into 
the Calendar of the civil year. 

The leap years in the cycle are the 2d, 5th, 7th, 
10th, 13th, 15th, 18th, 21st,"24th, 26th, and 29th. 

The Arabian year is divided into 12 months, as 
follows. 



1. 


Moharrem 


30 days 


2. 


Saffar 


29 — 


3, 


Rabia el Auwal 

S 


30 — 



\ 



86 INTRODUCTION 

4. RabiaAchar 29 — 

5. Djomada el Auwal 30 — 

6. Djomada Achar 29 

7. Radjib 30 — 

8. Shaban 29 — 

9. Ramadsan 30 — 

10. Schawal 29 — 

11. Dsulkada 30 — 

12. Dsulhadje ( 29 in common 

( 30 in leap years. 

In 32 Solar years the 10 clays and 21 hours, by 
which the Solar exceeds the Lunar year, amount to 
359d. 3h. 20/ or a whole Lunar year, and from 4 to 
5 days over. (See above § 12.) 

The Arabians had from primitive times weeks of 
seven days, but the days of the week were not named 
after the planets, and were only distinguished by num- 
ber, as the first, second, &c. From this it would 
seem, that the division into weeks was more ancient, 
than the naming of the days. 

35. Of the Calendars of other nations. 
For mathematical and astronomical chronologists, it 
W ust be matter of interest to know the Calendars of the 
Bramins, the Chinese, the Japanese and other nations, 



TO CHRONOLOGY. L8 

in order to compare them with our own, and from their 
greater or less perfection to inler the state of astronom- 
ical, and other kindred sciences among those nations, 
at the time, when their Calendars were introduced. 

But as they wonld be of use to the historical en- 
quirer only in case of his reading the history of those 
nations in their own authors, we may dispense with 
them in this introduction without disadvantage, or 
the charge of incompleteness in regard to the purpose 
intended by it. 

But we must not pass over in silence a remarkable 
Calendar, which in our own times was for a while in- 
troduced among a people, who sought at once to car- 
ry the arts of civil life to the highest perfection, and 
for that end went to work with an enthusiasm, that, 
was regulated by no wisdom, and with a haste, that 
was guided by no prudence. 

36. The year of thz French in the period of their 
Republic. 

It was introduced by a decree of the Legislative 
assembly October 6th 1793. 

New year's day was fixed to be on the 22d Septem- 
ber. 

To the twelve months new and significant names 
were given, and the three, which belonged to the same 
season had names of the same termination. 



88 INTRODUCTION 

The three Autumnal months were Vindemiaire, 
Brumaire and Frimaire. 

The three Winter months were Nivose, Pluviose, 
and Ventose. 

The three Spring months, Germinal, Florial, and 
Prairial. 

The three Summer months, Messidor, Thermidor, 
and Fructidor. 

Each month had 30 days. The five last days of 
the year, from the end of Fructidor to the beginning 
of Vindemiaire, according to the Gregorian Calendar 
from the 17th September to the 21st inclusive, were 
catted jours complement aires (or complemental days.) 

The week of seven days was rejected, and in its 
stead each month was divided into three parts 'of ten 
days each, called a decadi. 

Each day of a decadi had its proper name in the new 
vocabulary, primidi, duodi, tridi, quartidi, quintidi, 
sextidi, septidi, octidi, nonidi, decadi. 

The intercalary day, which every fourth year was 
added to the jours complementaires, was called, le 
jour de la Republique, and the cycle of four years was 
called, la Franciade. 

This Republican Calendar, after it had been in use 
for 12 years ? was by a Senatus-Consulte again drop- 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 



89 



ped, September 9th 1805, and the Gregorian Calendar 
restored January 1, 1806. 

37. Relations of the divisions of time to each other, 
in respect to their order of succession. 

Thus far, we have been occupied with showing^ 
how the divisions of time are measured, in respect to 
their quantity or duration. We have exhibited the 
two kinds of standards of measurement, and shown 
the use, which is made of each, with their relations 
to each other — 1. the natural ox astronomical, as the 
natural, astronomical, Solar year, Lunar year, Solar 
and Lunar month, day, &c. and — 2. the artificial, 
arbitrary, civil, as the civil year, month, week, day, 
hour &c. 

We have, therefore, accomplished the first of the 
two objects, at which chronology was said to aim, 
Chronologia est scientia tempora meiiendi. We 
now proceed to the second, and enquire how the divis. 
ion of time, since the existence of the human race, or 
rather since the study of its history was commenced, 
have succeeded each other. In order to this, it is ne- 
cessary to mark, by some determinate characters, the 
divisions, which preceded others, or followed after 
them, in order to distinguish the preceding from the 
succeeding, and know the order of sequence, Chro- 
8* 






90 INTRODUCTION ♦ 

nologia est scientia tempora metiendi, et distinguendi. 

In the continually uniform current of time, we can 
distinguish its parts, as they follow each other, only by 
the events, which occur in them. 

These are either natural occurrences— as we dis- 
tinguish the morning by the rising of the sun, which 
is a natural occuirence. 

Or human occurrences — as we distinguish the year, 
from which, as a fixed point, we usually reckon the 
years that preceded and followed it, only by (he birth 
of Christ. This was one of those events, which, al- 
though it was in itself a natural occurrence, or took 
place in the course of nature, we yet reckon among 
human events, as we do the birth and death of Alexan- 
der, of Charlemagne* of Luther, &c. because they 
are so important in the history of mankind. 

Events, therefore, are the tokens of distinction, the 
time-marks, the chronological characters, of the di- 
visions of time, (characteres chronologici.) 

If they are natural events, they are called natural 
marks or characters ^characteres naturales,) and since 
astronomers employ for this end celestial phaenomena, 
i. e. changes in the situation of the stars relatively to 
each other, these are called astronomical characteis. 
(characteres Astronomici.) Of this sort are the new 
and full moon, the Aequinoxes, the Solstices, the 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 91 

Solar and Lunar eclipses, the appearance of comets 
Sic, 

If they are human events, and adopted by men, as 
distinctive marks of particular portions of time, they 
are called artificial or arbitrary, marks or characters 
(characteres instituti, "arbitrary.,) 

As the means of designating the place and order of 
succession in which the division of time (years, months 
days, Sic.) follow each other, we must assume one of 
these as the first. Distinguishing this by the event, 
that characterised it, we then reckon the uniform and 
equal portions of time, as years, months, Sic. from 
this, as a. fixed pointy for those which preceded, back- 
wards, for those that followed, onward. The time so 
chosen, as the fixed point, with the events, by which 
it is distinguished, is called an Epoch or Era. (Epocha 
Aera, Terminus, Radix.) Of this kind are the year 
of the birth of Christ, the building of Rome, the flight 
of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. 

Among some nations, such Epochs are introduced 
by legislators, by founders of religious institutions, or 
by custom, so that in the business of civil life, in doc- 
uments, contracts, legal enactments, Sic. dates are 
given in conformity with them. These may be called 
civil Epochs (Epochae civiles.) 

Other Epochs are chosen by historians, in order to 



&2 INTRODUCTION 

arrange and determine by them the sequence of tho 
events, which they describe, so that their order may 
be distinctly recognized. These historical Epochs 
(Epochae historicae) must be distinguished from the 
civil. 

In the selection of these historical Epochs, there is 
always more or less of arbitrary determination. For 
although it must always be marked by some impor- 
tant event, which may be regarded, as the cause or 
the commencement of a new series of connected 
events, yet it depends on the judgment of the historian 
to what events he may suppose such importance at- 
taches itself, and the judgments of men are here often 
very diverse. Hence we find little agreement among 
the most distinguished writers of general history in 
their choice of Epochs. Thus Gatterer has adopted 
one, Schlosser another, Beck a third, &c. 

The portions of time, (years, &,c.,) which elapse from 
one Epoch to another, are denominated a period. Two 
Epochs, following each other in the same historical 
series of events, therefore, include one period, three 
include two, and four include three periods. Thus 
the building of Rome was the first Epoch in Roman 
history, the expulsion of the kings the second, and the 
time included between these forms the first period of 
Roman history. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 93 

Remark 1. Epochs may be compared to the resting 
places, or stations, in which the traveller stops for re- 
freshment or repose. As the wanderer, reposing him- 
self beneath the shade of a tree, or upon a rock, looks 
back upon the way which he has passed over, and for- 
ward to that wh'ch is still before him, so the way-farer 
in the path of historical investigation, when he has 
arrived at some great and distinguishing event, seems 
to have completed a past, and to be entering upon a 
new and commencing series of future events. He 
stops his progress, and dwells for a while, in his reflex- 
ions, upon the important event, which separates the 
past from the future, reviews again what he has al- 
ready passed over, and forms his conjectures respect- 
ing what may possibly, or more probably follow, in the 
yet future train of events. This image of a resting 
place, which invites to reflexion, is contained in the 
etymological import of the word Epoch, as derived 
from the Greek sne^sLv, 

2. The word A era is written also Era, and some- 
times Hera, In the period of classical Latioity it was 
not in use. Philologists have found the earliest traces 
of its use in Spain. The Julian Calendar was introdu- 
ced into Spain under Augustus, in the year 716 after 
the buildhgof the city, or 37 years before Christ. 
After this years were numbered in Spain from the 



94 INTRODUCTION 

time of the introduction of ihe Calendar, and this 
reckoning of the year was called the A era. This 
mode of reckoning in fact continued to be used in 
Spain, under the same name, in the middle ages, and 
it was not till the deliverence of the country from 
Moorish domination, that theso-called Aera Hispanica 
was laid aside, and the custom of reckoning from the 
birth of Christ introduced. 

But whence the word Aera was taken, what was its 
original signification, and how it came to be used in 
the sense, in which it now is, no satisfactory account 
has yet been discovered. 

38. 

It is the duty of chronologists and historians, to 
make themselves acquainted, as well with the civil 
Epochs and modes of reckoning, which were in use 
among different nations, as with the historical, which 
were chosen by historians merely for the purposes of 
method in the composition of history. For the times, 
in which events occurred, are given in 'he traditions 
and historical records of different nations, only accor- 
ding to those Epochs, and those modes of reckoning 
time, which were used among themselves. Chronolo- 
gists and historians of the present day among us must 
therefore reduce dates, given by Epochs foreign to our 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 1)5 

habits^ to those Epochs and modes of reckoning novr 
customary among ourseives. 

39. Epochs and modes of computing time among 
the Egyptians , Babylonians and Persians, 

Of civil Epochs, and computations of time, among 
these three nations, we know nothing, though it is 
probable they were not without such. For as civilized 
nations they had public documents, which always pre- 
supposed a mode of reckoning time, and determining 
dates. Perhaps they used, as Epochs, the commence- 
ment of each king's reign, numbering the years from 
that, so long as his reign continued. $bme Persian 
documents, which occur in the writings, of the Jews 
confirm this supposition in relation to that people. 

Some chronoiogists and historians have supposed, 
that the Babylonians made use of the Nabonassarian 
Era, as a mode of civil reckoning. This however is 
an error, as we shall soon see, that the Nabonassarian 
Era was a different thing from that. 

Neither are historical Epochs, well defined and 
authentic^ found in the obscure ancient accounts of 
Babylonian history, except the single one of Nebu- 
chadnezzar. This frightful conquerer, who trampled 
under foot the previously existing Asiatic States, and 
independant nations, from the Euphrates to Egypt, has 



96 INTRODUCTION 

left one year in his reign marked with chronological 
precision. This is the year 588 before Christ, in 
which he conquered Jerusalem, and carried its people 
into captivity. 

In Egyptian history Herodotus gives indeed histori- 
cal Epochs, (iVlenes, the Dodecarchie, and Psamrne- 
tichus,) but so indefinite and obscure, that they can- 
not with any certainty be reduced to the correspon- 
ding years before the birth of Christ. The only 
Epoch, historically certain and well defined, in the 
ancient history of Egypt, is the loss of its indepen- 
dence, and its subjection to the Persian yoke, about 
the year 526 before Christ. 

The ancient Persian history has two Epochs, his- 
torically ascertained, and defined with chronological 
precision, that of the organization of the monarchy 
by Cyrus, about the year 536, and that of its down- 
fall, or conquest by Alexander the Great, 331 before 
Christ. 

40. The Nabonassarian Era, and the Canon of 
Ptolemy. 

In one of the works of Ptolemy, that namely, which 
the barbarous Latin translators of the middle ages 
have entitled Aln.agestus, but which in the Greek 
original is superscribed, jueyahjg vvviaSewg firfllov »y, 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 97 

there is found a list of king's and emperors (xat>o$p 
fiaaileojv or ^acnleicov^y 

The first division, or section, contains the names of 
18 kings, who reigned in Babylon, the second section 
the names of Persian monarchs from Cyrus to Darius, 
the third contains Alexander and his two successors, 
who were regarded as his heirs, and consequently as 
i rulers over the whole monarchy, as established by him, 
namely, his half brother Arrhidaeus, and his son by 
Roxana, Alexander II. The fourth section contains 
the Grecian kings of Egypt, from Ptolemy Lagi to 
Cleopatra, the fifth and last the Roman emperors, 
from Augustus, who first converted Egypt into a Ro- 
man province. 

With the names of these kings and emperors, are 
arranged two columns of numbers. In the first col- 
umn, the number designates the sum of the years* 
during which the monarch reigned, to whose name it 
is annexed, the number in the second column, the 
sum made up by adding the preceding to the reigns 
of his predecessors. Thus, after the last Babylonian 
king, Nabonadius, stand the numbers 17 and 209. 
Nabonadius reigned 17 years, and this sum, added 
to the years of all his predecessors, amounts to 209. 

The first of the Babylonian kings, with wh®m the 
table begins, is Nabonassar, who reigned 14 years. 
9 



98 INTRODUCTION 

Astronomical chronologists have computed, that 
the beginning of his reign fell in the year 747 before 
Christ, and on the day, which in the Julian Calendar 
would be the 26th February. This Epoch astronora. 
ical chronologists have called the Nabonassarian Era 
(Aera Nabonassaris.) 

If it be asked, how were Astronomers able to com* 
pute this with so much precision, the answer is easy. 
It is well known, that they can not only ascertain 
with precision, on what day, and hour future eclipses 
of the sun and moon will occur, but can compute j 
.with the same precision, those which have occurred 
in the most ancient times. 

Ptolemy has mentioned three eclipses of the moon, 
which had been observed by astronomers at Babylon, 
and has given the times of their occurrence, in the 
years, months, and days, of those king's reign. Thus 
bespeaks of an eclipse of the moon, which happened 
at Babylon on the 29th of the month Thoth, in the 
first year of the reign of king Mardocempad. Mod" 
ern astronomers have computed, that an eclipse of 
the moon must have been visible at Babylon, in the 
year 721 before Christ, on the 19th of March, by the 
Julian Calendar. The first year of the reign of Mar 
docempad was, therefore, the year 721 before Christ- 

Besides these three Lunar eclipses, Ptolemy has 



TO CHRONOLOGY. W 

given, with equaj definiteness, other astronomical ob- 
servations, made at Babylon. By means of these, and 
the table of successive reigns, astronomers have been 
able to attain the precision above referred to. 

Another question naturally arises, for what purpose 
was this canon made, and by whom ? 

From the use, which Ptolemy himself made of it, 
it is obvious, that it was made for the use of Astrono- 
mers, in order to determine the times of their obser- 
vations, by reference to civil modes of computation. 
Perhaps the two first sections were formed in Babylon 
itself, and abstracts carried to Alexandria, when un- 
der the Ptolemies Astronomy was zealously prosecu- 
ted there. At Alexandria the canon, or tabular lists 
of reigns, was continued, the line of Ptolemies added, 
and afterwards, when Egypt became a Roman prov- 
ince, the Roman emperors also. 

Whether Ptolemy himself made these additions is 
uncertain, and a matter of indifference. This list 
was continued after his death, as he lived under the 
emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, from about 
125 to 162 after Christ, and the table contains the 
names of those, who reigned after that time. 

Besides Ptolemy, there are onlv three ancient au- 
thors, who make mention of the Era of Nabonassar, 
viz. Censorinus, Theon, and Syncellus, and all in 



100 INTODUCTION 

reference to astronomical and chronological objects. 
No other writer, and no mere historian speaks of it, 
not even where Babylonian history was the chief topic 
of discourse. 

The hypothesis, therefore, adopted by some histo- 
rians and chronologists, that under Nabonassar, or 
by his means, an important political revolution hap- 
pened at Babylon, and a new dynasty came to the 
throne, cannot be fully established, and is rendered, in- 
deed, only in a slight degree probable. 

It is more probable, that under Nabonassar some- 
thing important was done in Babylon for the science 
of astronomy. Perhaps the civil year may have been 
reformed, as the Roman was by Julius Caesar, and like 
that too named after the individual, under whose 
auspices it was effected. Some chronologists have in 
fact ascribed the Babylonian year, of which we have 
given an account above (§22,) to Nabonassar, and 
called it after his name. (Ideler in his Untersuchun- 
gen.) 

The table above described, and usually known as 
the Canon of Ptolemy, is in other respects very im- 
poitant to ancient chronology. It has served inquir- 
ers, as a guiding line, in tracing out the perplexities 
and obscurities, which arise from the great diversity 
of methods, by which ancient historians have distin- 
guished the times, of which they wrote. 



TO 1 HSiOAOLOGY. 101 

Remark. 1 Among the Babylonian kings in the 
Canon, the name of Nebuchadnezzar is not found. 
Yet there is no doubt remains, that a great conqueror 
of that name ruled at Babylon, during the period there 
included. Probably, however, all these names, were 
at first incorrectly spoken and written by the Greeks, 
to whom they had a barbarous sound, and were after- 
wards still more corrupted by transcribers. In the 
Canon, there is found a king Nabocolassar, whose 
reign falls at the time, in which, according to the more 
authentic records of the - Hebrew writers, Nebuchad- 
nezzar reigned, The one may have been made out 
of the other by repeated errors of transcribers. 

2. If this Ptolemaic Canon is, as I think it, to be 
considered authentic, it is alone sufficient to remove 
all the doubts, which have been stated, by certain 
modern Orientalists, against the existence of Cyrus 
and his successors, as represented by the Greek au- 
thors. Those doubts rest only on the ground, that 
Persian and Arabian authors, many centuries later, 
and, on other grounds, of no authority, make no men- 
tion of these kings. 

41. Mode of computing time among the Greeks.' 
a. JBy generations. 

When men began to give attentionto the distinctive 
9* 



102 INTRODUCTION 

characters, by which the times, when events trans- 
pired, are distinguished from each other, in order by 
these to measure the interval of time from one event 
to another, they found nothing better, than the three 
generations, grandfather,- father, and son ; or father, 
ton, and grandson. Thus an event occurred in the 
time of the grandfather, another in that of the fath- 
er, &/C. 

Probably all nations, among whom civil modes of 
reckoning time, and fixed Epochs have been introdu- 
ced, have long employed this very natural, but very 
indefinite mode. In regard to the Greeks, it is cer- 
tain, that for a long time they had no other. The 
chronology of the heroic age can he computed only 
by this vague method, and the earliest Grecian histo- 
rians depended on this alone, 

Pherecydes and Cadmus, (the last from his native 
country, known as Cadmus of Miletus,) the two most 
ancient historians of the Greeks, and who lived about 
500 years before Chiist, are said to have given the 
dates of events by this method, availing themselves of 
the genealogies of celebrated families. 

Herodotus sometimes also reckons by the succes- 
sion of generations. "The queen Semiramis, ,; he says, 
"lived five generations before queen Nitocris." (Her- 
od. 1, 184.) 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 103 

Herodotus expressly lays down the proposition, that 
three generations {ysveag, generationes) may be taken 
for a century. He says, B. II. 144. "Three hundred 
generations of men are equal to ten thousand years, 
for three generations are, a hundred years." 

In conformity with this, the Greeks assigned 33^ 
years to each generation. 

The genealogies of celebrated families among the 
Greeks were kept in remembrance, by always attach- 
ing to the name of a distinguished individual the name 
of his father, as Agamemnon the son of Atreus, Mil- 
tiades the son of Cimon. Another fact, tending to 
the same result, was, that the name of every celebra- 
ted man, without exception, was found upon some 
public monument, either in some temple, or in some 
other public place. 

Especially was the genealogy of the kings of La- 
cedaemon, of the race of the Heraclidae, or the de- 
. scendants of Hercules, known by such monuments. 

Let us see, how, according to this method, by means 
of the genealogy of these kings of Lacedaemon, they 
sought to determine the time of the Trnjiri war. 

Leonidas, the king of Lacedaemon, who fell at 
Thermopylae for the liberties of Greece, was a de- 
scendant, in the 17th generation, from Aristodemus, 
the Heraclid, who won the kingdom of Lacedaemow 



104 INTRODUCTION 

for his family. At 33* years to a generation, this 
period is 567 years. Aristodemus was the 4th gener- 
ation from Hercules, making an interval of 139 years, 
which added to the former gives 697 years from Her- 
cules to Leonidas. 

The Trojan war was one generation, or about 33 
years after Hercules, which subtracted from the above 
697 leaves 664 years. This then, according to Gre- 
cian estimates, was about the interval from the Trojan 
war to Leonidas. 

Even modern chronologists have no other means of 
determining the time of the Trojan war, because among 
the ancients, who make mention of it, no other date3 
are found. 

Since, then, Leonidas died for his country in the 
year 480 before Christ, modern chronologists assume, 
according to the above computation adding 634 to 
480, that the Trojan war was about 1144 years be- 
fore the birth of Christ. 

The principle of reckoning three generations, as 
equal to a hundred years, is in one sense not far from 
the truth. But Newton first made the remark, that 
the Greeks applied the principle erroneously, when 
they considered the reigns of three successive kings 
equal to three generations, and reckoned them also a 
hundred years. He showed, that in the average only 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 



105 



about 18, and at most 20 years, could be reckoned, 
as the period of a single reign, and that the longest 
period assigned to three successive reigns could not 
be more than GO years. Hence he wrote his "Chro- 
nologia veterum eme'ridata" for the purpose of showing 
the errors in the chronology of the ancients, arising 
from this erroneous application of a principle, where 
it does not belong. 

The reigns of the 17 Heraclidae at Lacedaemon, 
according to the remark of Newton, would amount 
only to about 340 years, and therefore, by his com- 
putation, the Trojan war happened not far from 990 
or 920 before Christ. 

This method of computing time by generations has 
been called the cycle of generations (3yclus genera- 
tionum.) 

Remark. Eratosthenes and Apollodorus, two Greek 
authors, are said to have reckoned the sum of the 
17 reigns of Lacedaemonian kings at 622 years, which 
would give in the average 36J- years for each. By 
this reckoning the Trojan war would be placed still 
earlier, or about 1200 before Christ. Some chronol- 
ogists, who since the revival of letters have treated 
the subject, have placed it thus early, merely from re- 
gard to the authority of those two authors. 



106 INTRODUCTION 

42. b. The Otymjjiads. 

\ ■; . 

The Grecian Republics had no civil reckoning of 
time common to them all. In each Republic, the 
year, when any event occurred, was designated mere- 
ly by the rrame of him, who for the year held the high* 
est office in the State. 

At Athens, where the executive government was ad- 
ministered by ten Archons annually chosen, it was 
the first in rank among these, whose -name was inser- 
ted in the laws, in treaties with other States, and up- 
on the public monuments. Hence he was distin- 
guished from the others by the epithet Eponymus 
(as giving name to the year.) 

At Lacedaemon it was not the names of the kings, 
but that of the first in rank of the five annual Ephori, 
which was inserted in public documents, and placed 
upon public monuments. 

This want of a mode of reckoning time common to 
the different States, made it very difficult for histori- 
ans to give the dates of events, in a manner in- 
telligible to all. We cannot but wonder indeed, that 
the advantage of such a mode should have failed to 
occur to a people so inventive, and having so ready a 
perception of what convenience required in the ordi- 
nances of civil life, us the Greeks. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 107 

Timaeus of Sicily, after the time of Alexander, is 
said to have first remarked, that the Olympic Game* 
might serve for a sure, a fixed, and generally intelligi. 
ble, designation of chronological dates, and in his wri- 
tings, of which none are extant, to have marked the 
dates of events by Olympiads. The convenience, and 
definiteness of this mode of reckoning, was manifest 
to all subsequent historians. 

Yet in public business, and for the purposes of civil 
life, the Olympiads were still never adopted in Greece- 

The Olympic Games were always celebrated at in- 
tervals of four years. These four years from one cele" 
bration to another were called an Olympiad, and num- 
bered as the 1st, 2d, lid, and 4th years of the I. 
Olympiad, of the II. Olympiad, &,c. 

The Olympiads, however, were not numbered from 
the first celebration of the Olympic Games. This was 
very ancient, and lost in the obscurity of primitive 
times, so that only uncertain traditions of it remained. 
In process of time it had become customary, however, 
to erect statues and public monuments, in honor of 
the combatants, who won the prize at tnose games, 
and thus they had in these monuments an unbroken 
series of combatants, and consequently a mark of the 
successive games that had been celebrated. Coroe- 
bus is said to have been the first, to whom a statue 



108 INTRODUCTION 

was erected, and the celebration, in which Coroebus 
had been the victor, was now regarded by chronolo- 
gists, as the first in the series, The four first years, 
therefore, after the crowing of Coroebus constituted 
the first Olympiad. 

The year in which he gained the prize, and conse- 
quently the first year of the first Olympiad, fell the 
year 776 before Christ. 

For converting Olympiads into our mode of reck- 
oning from the birth of Christ, the following rule wilj 
serve. 

Let the 3d year of the 6th Olympiad be given. 

t Multiply the five full Olympiads by 4 will give 20 
years, and add to this sum the 3 years of the yet un- 
finished 6th, and we have 23. 

Subtract these 23 years from 776, and we find the 
3d year of the 6th Olympiad correspond to the year 
753 before Christ. 

To convert a given number of years before Christ 
into Olympiads, proceed as follows. 
Let the year 753 be given. 

Subtract this from 776 leaves 23, which divide by 
4, and the quotient gives the number of finished 
Olympiads =5, while the remainder=3 is the 3d year 
of the yet current 6th Olympiad. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 109 

Bat we must remark that the Olympic games com- 
menced with the first new moon after the summer Sol- 
stice, and consequently in the month Hecatombaeon, 
which was the 7th month in the Attic year. (See 
above § 19.) An Olympic year, therefore, embraced 
the six last months of one and the six first of the fol- 
lowing Attic year. And since the Attic year began 
at the winter Solstice, or about the time, when the 
Julian year begins, the Olympic year has nearly the 
same relation to this also, or embraces about six 
months of one, and six months of the following Julian 
year. (Dodwell devet Graecor. ac. Romanor. Cyclis 
Dissert IV.) 

The following table will show in a few examples, how 
the yearsof the Olympiads — those before the birth of 
Christ — and those after the building of Rome, corres 
pond with each other. The numbers written in the 
form of fractions designate the last half of one, and the 

first half of the following year. 

Olympiads. Befor 

VI. 3. = 
4. = 

VII. 1. = 

2. ^ 
10 



hrist. 


From the h 
of Rome. 


wilding 


754 
75 3 


= 


1. 


15 3 
752 


= 


% 


752 
75 1 


= 


3. 




= 


4. 






110 







INTRODUCTION 






3. 


= 


7fi 
74 9 


= 


&. 


4. 


= 


749 
74 8 


= 


6. 


I. 


= 


74 8 
747 


== 


7. 


2. 


— 


74 7 
Tib 


= 


8. 



43. The Cecropian Era, and Parian Chronicle, 

The Cecropian Era, i. e. the year, in which Ce- 
crops is said to have come from Egypt to Athens, has 
been, since 1628, regarded by *he learned, as an im- 
portant, an authentic, and well defined Epoch in Gre- 
cian history. Important, since with the arrival of Ce- 
crops, according to Greek tradition, the progress of 
civilization in Greece commenced ; and regarded as 
authentic and well defined, on the following grounds. 

An Earl of Arundel, a friend and patrr n of literature 
and the arts, sent a man of learning, William Petty, 
into the Levant to collect manuscripts and ancient 
works of art. Petty came back to England in 1627, 
and brought with him r among other ancient monu- 
ments, a tablet of Parian marble, on which was en- 
graved a short chronicle of Grecian history. The 
celebrated Selden published, in the year 1628, the in- 
scriptions contained on those marbles, under the ti- 
tle of Marmora Arundetiana. In the civil wars un- 
der Charles L these marbles were dispersed. After 



TO CHRONOLOGY. Ill 

the war much was again collected, and given by the 
grandson of the Earl to the University of Oxford. — 
Among-the fragments recovered, and still found at 
Oxford, is the tablet of Parian marble, which on ac- 
count of its inscription, is called the Parian Chroni- 
cle. 

Since Selden two new editions of this Chronicle, as 
well as of the other inscriptions, have appeared, the 
one by Humphrey Prideaux, 1676, the other by Rich- 
ard Chandler, 1763, both under the title Marmora Ox- 
oniensia. 

When this Chronicle was entire, it ended with the 
Athenian Archon Diognetus. Such was the case, 
when it was copied by Selden. But afterwards, in 
the troubles of the civil war, some of the lower part of 
it was broken off. 

The dates of events are given in it in years before 
the Archon Diognetus, reckoning backwards from this, 
as the fixed point, so that the Chronicle would seem to 
have been made under this Archon, 

Since then it is proved, that this Diognetus was 
Archon in the year 2o4 before Christ, it is easy to 
convert all its dates into the corresponding ones of 
our mode of reckoning. Thus, according to this 
Chronicle, the battle of Plataea took place 216 years 
before Diognetus, and therefore 480 before Christ. 






112 INTRODUCTION 

This Chronicle begins with Cecrops, and dates his 
eoming into Greece 1318 years before Diognetus, 
consequenly 1582 before Christ, 

Chronologists supposed, that in this Chronicle they 
had found the most safe guide in Grecian Chronolo- 
gy. But in 1753 a treatise appeared in London, in 
which the anonymous author called in question the 
authenticity of it, upon apparently strong grounds. Its 
title was, " The Parian Chronicle, or the Chronology of 
the Arundelian Marble, with a Dissertation concerning 
its authenticity." The views of this writei were con- 
troverted, not only by several learned men in England, 
but in the Goettingischen Anzeigen (1790, No. GO..) 
For the same purpose of defending the authority of 
the Chronicle, a work was published by Dr. Wagner, 
at Gottingen, 1790. 

Yet the influence of the anonymous writer and of 
his doubts has been such, that the Chronicle and its 
authority is appealed to with hesitation, and its au- 
thenticity may be regarded as at least doubtful. 

The author of the English treatise was for a time 
supposed to be Dr. Parr, but is now known to have 
been Joseph Robertson, whose learning and critical 
ability are celebrated in the Monthly Magazine for 
March 1802. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. US 

44. Important historical Epochs in the history of ths 
GfreiBs. 

1 . The Legislation of Solon. Not only because 
by this Athens received that form- of organization, 
which was so celebrated among the ancients, (the first 
Republic, of the constitution and organization of 
which we have full and definite accounts,) but also, 
because in the time of Solon Grecian culture attain- 
ed its period of peculiar and characteristic beauty. — 
The promulgation of the laws of Solon fell in the year 
594 before Christ, or according to Newton only 502. 

2. The great war against the Persians y especial- 
ly against Xerxes. This was one of the most impor- 
tant Epochs for the whole of Europe, and indeed for 
the whole human race. For had the Greeks been 
brought under the yoke, the Grecian culture, on which 
that of all Europe in later times depended, would 
have been annihilated in its first bloom. The fate of 
the war was decided, in the great battles of Salamis 
and Plataea, fortunately for Greece, for Europe, and 
for all that we term intellectual cultivation. The bat- 
tle at Salamis took place 479, that of Plataea 478 be- 
fore Christ. According to the Parian Chronicle, 
however, they happened a year earlier, and this date 
is adopted by many modern Chronologists and histori- 
ans. 

10* 



114 INTRODUCTION 

3. The beginning of the Peloponessian war, 431 
before Christ. At this period it had become obvious, 
that a free and prudent union, on which alone the in- 
dependence of the Grecian republics depended, was 
impossible, and it could already be foreseen, that the 
preponderance of a warlike State would at some peri- 
od decide the fate of Greece. In this respect the 
Peloponessian war may be compared with the thirty 
years war in Germany. 

4. The battle of Chaeronca, 338 before Christ.— 
This was for Greece what some battles in our own 
times have been for Germany. 

45. The Era of the Scleucidae. 

This is important for the history of Asia, after the 
time of Alexander the Great, through the^whole period 
of the middle ages, and also for the history of the 
Christian Church, since the Fathers sometimes made 
use of this mode of reckoning. 

The Epoch, with which this mode of reckoning 
commences, falls in the first year of the 1 17th Olym. 
piad, which again embraced the last six months of the 
year 312, and the first six of the year 31 1 before 
Christ. 

Seleucus, afterwards called Nicator, one of the 
most bold, skillful, and successful of the generals of 






TO CHRONOLOGY 115 

Alexander, obtained in this year a great victory over 
his opponents. The results of this victory were the 
conquest of Babylon, and the founding of a powerful 
monarchy, which was ruled by the posterity of Seleu- 
cus, and therefore called the kingdom of the Seleucidae. 
It was otherwise called also the Syrian kingdom, 

In the countries pertaining to the monarchy, it was 
customary in historical writings, and perhaps in civil 
transactions to number the years from the conquest of 
Babylon, and this mode of reckoning was thence call- 
ed the Era of the Seleucidae. 

The use of this occurs in the Books of the Macca- 
bees, and is found in the Christian fathers of the first 
centuries, in the Syrian, and in Arabian authors. 

The Arabians term it the Era of the two-horned 
(Dhui-Karnain.) 

This two-horned was uudoubtedly .Seleucus and the 
occasion for the epithet was furnished by coins struck 
during his reign, on which his head was represented 
with two horns upon the forehead. Statues also, 
erected in honor of him, had the same, and these are 
Baid to have symbolized his physical strength. Se- 
leucus seems to have been peculiarly flattered by an 
admiration of his personal prowess. 

Of the coins, which so represented him, Eckhell 
treats Vol. 1 P* III. p. 210. Those coins, which 



116 INTRODUCTION 

were current among the oriental nations, explain 
most naturally* why the above epithet was used among 
them. 

Others have supposed, that this epithet was applied 
by them to Alexander himself. Such is indeed the case 
in the Koran, and an Arabian author, Abulpharagius, 
has explained the two horns to signify the two conti- 
nents, which Alexander subdued. 

It is not improbable, that the latter Orientals, and 
Mohammed himself, considered Alexander as inten- 
ded by a designation, then known among them only 
by tradition. They were by no means skilled in an- 
cient history, and confounded persons and dates to 
such a decree, ns n0 [ to distinguish the dominion of 
the Romans in Asia, from the antecedent reign of the 
Greeks, and even held the Roman empire to be a con- 
tinuation of that of the Seleucidae. The later Ori- 
entals called the Era of the Seleucidae indeed the 
Era of the empire of Rome. 

Ulug Beg, grandson of the celebrated Tamerlane, 
prince of Samarcand, about the year 1430, wrote an 
astronomical and chronological work in the Persian 
language, in which he speaks of the Era of the Se, 
leucidae, and even he calls it the Roman, while at the 
same time he derives it from Alexander. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 117 

46. Civil mode of reckoning time among the Romans* 
The Consular Era. 

The Romans had no other mode of reckoning in 
the business of civil life, but the succession of the 
two annual Consuls. They employed neither in their 
laws, nor in their treaties with foreign nations, nor 
upon public monuments, any other means of design a" 
ting the year when any events took place, than sim- 
ply to name the two individuals, who exercised for the 
year the supreme powers of the Consulate, The 
names of these Consuls being, then, as they succeeded 
each other from year to year, recorded in their year 
books or Calendars, ( fastis annalibus,) or preserved 
upon public monuments, they had, iu the succession 
of Consuls, the means of numbering the years, from 
the expulsion of the kings downward, in their proper 
order. Chronolos n this mode of reckoning 

among the Romans the Conular Era fAera Consula" 
ris.) 

It began with the year 245 of the city,— 503 before 
Christ, This Consular Era was retained under the 
emperors, Tacitus designates years only by the names 
of the Consuls. Everuafter the Consular office had 
ceased to confer any thing but an empty title and rank, 
with the burthensome duty of giving a costly festival 
to the people, the year was still named after the Coir 



118 INTRODUCTION. 

suls, and we might suppose, thai the custom of so de- 
signating the year was the only reason, that under 
the emperors the office was not entirely abolished. 
In tie constitutions of the Emperors in the Roman 
Codex, the Consuls, under whom the constitutions 
were given, are always named. The Consulate was 
first formally discontinued by an ordinance of the 
Emperor Leo the Philosopher, who reigned from 886 
to 911. The reason assigned by him is, that in pro- 
cess of time the office, once so exalted, had fallen into 
contempt, duum, qui omnia, temporis cursus hanc 
etiam Consularem magnificentiam e pristina gloria et 
amplitudine in objectam speciem transformavit.* — 
(Imp. Leonis Nov. Const. XCIV.) From this time 
the above mode of reckoning ceased of itself. 

47. The Historical mode of reckoning from the buil- 
ding of the City, 

The mode of reckon in g/rom the building of the 
City, (Aera sive annus urbis Conditae, written with 
the initials A, U. C.) was never the civil Era among 
the Romans, norused either in their laws, or treaties* 
or on their public monuments.* 

For a long period the Romans were themselves as 

*Because the lapse of time, which changes all things, has 
reduced also the Consular magnificence from its pristine glo- 
ry and dignity into an abject form. 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 119 

ignorant, as they were indifferent, in regard to the 
age of their city. The eLler Cato, who died 148 be- 
fore Christ, was the first, and Varro in the age of 
Augustus was the next, who instituted inquiries re- 
specting the year of the building of Rome. Accor- 
ding to Cato's comp ntation it was the first year of the 
seventh, according to Varro's the fourth year of the 
sixth Olympiad. Chronologists have preferred Var- 
ro's account, and the fourl h year of the sixth Olym- 
piad, which was the year 753 before Christ, is receiv- 
ed by all historians, as the year of the building of 
Rome. 

Newton doubted the correctness of the computation 
on the following grounds. It is assumed in it, that 
the sum of the reigns of the seven kings, from Rom- 
ulus to the last Tarquin inclusive, was 245 years. 
But we do not find, that the Romans had any other 
source of knowledge than tradition in regard to the 
reign of their kings. No public documents, no monu- 
ments, no witnesses are named, which designated a 
definite number of years to the reign of each. The 
times were disorderly, and two of the seven kings, ac- 
cording to tradition, were murdered, two others are 
represented to have died an unnatural death, being 
struck by lightning, though it is propable, that they 
also were murdered. Newton, therefore, considers it 
very improbable, that among so turbulent a peopk 






120 INTRODUCTION 

seven kings in succession should have reigned s 
great a length of time. He thought this therefore a 
case, in which his rule should be applied, according 
to which the average reign of a king is estimated, aa 
being at the highest no more than twenty years. 
Taking this rule then the seven kings would have 
reigned only 140 years, and the building of Rome 
would fall about 626 before Christ. 

The building of Rome, however, is at best an ob- 
scure point in history. This is not the place to trea 1 
of it more at large, but we thought it necessary to 
mention Newton's opinion on the subject. 

48. Civil mode of reckoning in the Greek Empirt 
from the Era of the Creation. 

The theologians of this Empire, in the year 681 of the 
Christian Era, at an oecumenical or general Council, 
assumed it as a fact proved, that the world was created 
on the 1st September, 5508 years 3 months and 25 
days before the birth of Christ. This Era was adopt- 
ed by all the Oriental Churches in affairs of religion. 
It was also, after the rejection of the Consular Era, 
employed by the Greek Emperors at Constantinople 
in public documents, and introduced into the business 
of civil life Our method of reckoning from the birth 
of Christ was never adopted by the Greeks, perhaps 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 12l 

for no other reason, but that it was first conceived and 
introduced in the Western or Latin Church. Two 
hostile Churches are very prone, even in things that 
have little concern with religion, to reject the better 
course, if adopted by their opponents. 

This mode of computation is called by chronolo- 
gists the Aera Constantinopolitana, or sometimes also 
the Annus Graecorum civilis, or civil year of the 
Greeks. 

The Greeks however only designated the number 
of the year, without adding, that it was the year of 
the world, or of the Creation, Thus, in a constitu- 
tion of the Emperor Heraclius, an ordinance of Al 
exius Comnenus is introduced, and its date given. 
simply anno 6589. (Imperatoriae Constit.) 

From Constantinople this mode of reckoning was 
received along with Christianity into the Russian 
Empire. It continued in use among them till Peter 
I. in the year 1700 discontinued it, and introduced 
the Christian Era already in use in the rest of Eu. 
rope. 

49. The Cycle of Indiction. 

In the Roman Empire, about the time of Diocletian 

or Constantine I., (for the precise time is uncertain,) 

there was introduced a tax on property. Every fif- 
11 






122 



IftTODUCTlON 



teen years a new ordinance was promulgated, solemn- 
ly subscribed by the Emperors, in which it was fix- 
ed, how much of this tax each Province, each Dis- 
trict, City or Commune should contribute. During 
the fifteen years from the publication of the ordinance, 
every Jocal division in each Province, and each indi- 
vidual inhabiting that division, must pay the amount 
levied upon them, whether during that period they be- 
come poorer or richer. Only after the fifteen 3 ears 
had elapsed, or the forming of the new ordinance, 
could any regard be had to the change, that had ta- 
ken place in the pecuniary condition of the taxpay- 
ers. 

The ordinance, by which the Emperor imposed the 
tax, was properly called Indictio, (a charge, a procla- 
mation,) but the tax came also to be designated by the 
same name. 

Even in the ordinances written in Greek by the 
Emperors at Constantinople the Latin word Indictio 
was used, though sometimes it was translated by the 
word entPEfirjcrtg* 

In process of time the practice was introduced at 
Constanstinople of dating imperial ordinances also by 
naming the current year of the Indiction. Thus of 
the ordinance of the Emperor Alexius Comnenur 
mentioned above it is said, it was given Indictione 4, 
that is in the fourth year of the current Indiction. 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 



123 



The Popes at Rome imitated this custom, and da- 
ted their Bulls and ordinances also by Indictions, yet 
with some variations in the form, for they added the 
number of the current Indiction, which the Greeks 
did not. 

The Popes moreover assumed in doing so, we know 
not for what reason, that the Indictions, or tax ordi- 
nances, had their commencement three years before 
the birth of Christ, though, as was remarked above, 
they first came into use in the time of Diocletian or 
Constantine. The Papal formula was consequently 
e.g. anno 4 Indictionis LIII. which means, that 52 
full Indictions of 15 years each=780 years, and four 
years of the 53d had elapsed, or 784 years, from the 
assumed commencement of the Indictions, or 781 
from the birth of Christ, 

When Charlemagne caused himself to be crowned 
Roman Emperor in the year 890. he adopted this mode 
of dating in his documents, and the German Empe- 
rors have retained it. In the ordinance of Maximilian 
I. for the instruction of Notaries, they are directed to 
use this form in their public records and documents. 

The tax on property however, to which this formula 
had reference, had in the mean time, in all those 
countries, in which it was levied, ceased to exist since 
the downfall of the western Empire, and was perhaps 



124 INTRODUCTION 

too so entirely forgotten, that the meaning of the 
word was no longer known. 

[This seems to be the most proper place for inser- 
ting a concise account of some other cycles and 
terms connected with them, which though not per- 
haps necessary for the student of history, and so not 
given in the original work, are yet often referred to 
in the intercourse of life, and important to be under- 
stood. 

The Solar cycle, so called, seems to have received 
its designation, not, as the name would imply, from 
anv relation to the periodical revolutions of the sun, 
but from its being theperiod, in which sun-day (dies 
solis) and the Dominical letter, which designates that 
day in the Calendar, completes the series of its 
changes in relation to the day of the year and the 
month. Since, as mentioned in sec' ion 15, there are 
in common years, one, and in leap years, two days, more 
than an even number of weeks, successive years do 
not begin on the same day of the week but a series 
of changes takes place. If there were no leap years 
this series would be completed in seven years, but as 
every fourth year, being leap year, contains an excess 
of two days, the series becomes more complicated and 
can only be completed in 4 times 7 or 28 years. This 
period of 28 years then is the Solar cycle, 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 125 

The use of the Dominical or Sunday letter, as con- 
nected with this cycle, may be explained as follows. 
The seven first letters of the alphabet have been used 
to correspond with the seven days of the week, begin- 
ning with the year and repeated. One of these of 
course answers to Sunday, and in our Almanacs, 
ephemerides, &,c. is printed, in a capital form, against 
Sunday throughout the year, to designate it as the 
Lord's day (dies Dominica.) This letter is not always 
the same, but follows the series of changes above rep- 
resented. If we suppose January of a particular 
year to begin on Sunday, and A. to be the Dominical 
letter, then, if it be a common year, the next will be- 
gin a day later in the week, or on Monday. Beginning 
the repetition of the letters with A then, as before, 
from Monday the first day of the year, the letter cor- 
responding to Sunday will be G. The Dominical 
letter, which is thus found for designating the £rst 
Sunday in the year, is used, if it be a common year, 
to mark all the Sundays through the year, But in 
leap year it is used only to the last of February, when 
the additional day is intercalated, and Sunday falls 
back another letter. If it was G in those two months, 
it would be F, for the rest of the year, the next year 
E, the next D, &c 
It is customary to consider the Solar cycle as eom- 
11* 



126 INTRODUCTION 

mencing in the ninth year before the Christian Era, 
which was a leap year and began with Monday. From 
these data rules are easily framed, for determining on 
what day of the week New Year's day will fall, and 
consequently what will be the Dominical letter, for 
any year, either according to the Julian or the Gre- 
gorian Calendar. 

The Lunar Cycle is a period of 19 years, first 
brought into notice by Meton, as mentioned in section 
19, and hence sometimes called the Metonic cycle. 
As the Solar year exceds twelve revolutions of the 
moon, or the Lunar year, by about 11 days, the rela- 
tion of one to the other will vary through a series o^ 
changes, which is found to be completed and return 
into itself, or very nearly so, after 19 Solar years. 
Thus on the 2d January 1813 there was a new moon, 
which occurred again on the same day of the year, 
only after the above period, or in 1832. Taking these 
data it is easy to prepare tables, which will show the 
days of the new moon in all the years included in 
such a cycle. It is only necessary to observe, that, 
for the commencement of such periods, we refer back 
to a year, in which there was a new moon on the first 
of January, and this was the case with the 1st year 
before Christ. 

This cycle was deemed so important at Athens, 






TO CHRONOLOGY. 127 

that it was engraved upon a tablet in golden letters, 
and hence the number, designating what year of the 
Lunar cycle any year is, is called the golden number. 

As the new moons fall on the same day after every 
period of 19 years, so the differences between the 
Lunar and the Solar years will be the same in each 
successive period of 19 years. This difference is al- 
ways to be added to the Lunar year to render it equal 
to the Solar, and is therefore called the epact, (from 
the Greek snayw, to bring in, to intercalate,) as given 
in our Almanacs. Tr.] 

50. The Christian Era. 

It is a matter of wonder, that Christians for seven 
or eight centuries, though they had many festival days 
in memory of the most important events in the life of 
Christ, and laboriously enquired out the days, on 
which those events happened and which were there- 
fore to be observed, as, for example the day for the 
celebration of Easter, and though they even celebra- 
ted the birth day of Christ, should yet, in regard to 
the year of his birth, have been alike igaofant and in- 
curious. Especially does it seem strange, that the 
theologians of the Greek empire, who were so fond of 
^earned investigation, and wrote church-histories so 
industriously, those'too, who in a numerous assemblage 



128 INTRODUCTION 

fixed the year of the Creation, should never once have 
proposed the question, in what year Christ was born, 

A monk, who lived in obscurity at Rome about the 
year 530, from a country, too, then so unknown, that 
he was regarded as a Scythian, the monk Dionysius, 
fturnamed eiiguus (the little,) he it waj, that in tha 
obscurity of his cell, first attempted to ascertain, by 
chronological computation, the year of our Saviour's 
birth. The year too that he fixed upon in the result 
of his enquiries, was the same, which we reckon from 
at the present day, as that of the birth of Christ. At 
that time, however, men were far from conferring 
upon Dionysius the honour of adopting his mode of 
reckoning. It was two hundred years later, about 
720, than an Anglo-Saxon monk, the venerable Bede 
(Beda venerabilis,) recommended to Christians to 
make the birth of Christ, as computed by Dionysius, 
an Epoch for chronological purposes. Bede him- 
§elf introduced and made use of it in his own histori- 
cal works. 

But it was Charlemagne, who, after he was crowned 

Roman emperor in the year 800, first used this Era 

in dating public documents. Since that time it hag 

been in general use, as the mode of reckoning time 

n Christian Europe. 

In this mode of reckoning, it is assumed, that Christ 



TO CHRONOLOGY. 



129 



was born in the year 753 after the building of Rome, 
such having been theconclusion of Dionysius. 

Some modern enquirers however regard this as not 
strictly correct. 

In the life of Christ, as given in the four Evangel- 
ists, certain circumstances are so determined in re- 
lation to .time, as to make it appear, that Christ was 
born in the 750th, rather than the 753d year of Rome- 

In Luke (chap. 3,) it is said, Jesus was baptized 
by John in the 30th year of his age, and in the 15th 
of the reign of Tiberius. To find the year of his birth 
then, we must enquire what year of Rome was the 
I5thof the reign of Tiberius. But here a circum- 
stance occurs, which has occasioned a division of 
sentiment. Augustus, two years before his death, 
adopted Tiberius as his Colleague, or rather, by a de- 
cree of the Senate, a participation in the government 
of the Provinces was conferred upon him. Are the 
years of the reign of Tiberius then to be reckoned 
from this period, or only from the death of Augustus 1 
Augustus died in the year of the city 767. The reign of 
Tiberius, therefore, may be reckoned from the year 
765, or from 767. The 15th year of his reign would 
be accordingly either 780 or 782 a. U. C. and deduct- 
ing 30, as the age of Christ at that time, the year of 
his birth would fall in the year 750 or 752 after the 
building of Rome, 



130 INTRODUCTION 

In the Gospel of John, (chap. 2 ) it is stated, that in 
the 30t»i year of the life of Christ, the Jews said to him. 
" This temple has been forty six years in building. " 
&c. Reference is had here to the building, which 
Herod the 1st had commanded. The year of Christ's 
birth was therefore in the 16th year of the building of 
the temple. Herod gave the older for building it in 
the 18th year of his reign, and this commenced in the 
yearof Rome 717. The 16th year of the building of 
the temple therefore, and so of the birth of Christ, was 
the 750th of the Roman Era 

Finally Jesus celebrated the Passover with his dis- 
ciples on a Thursday in the 34th year of his life. INow 
Astronomeis have ascertained by calculation, that the 
feast of the Passover for a long series of years, before 
and after the death of Christ, could fall on Thursday 
only in the year 784 of Rome. This was the 34th 
year of his life, and therefore he was born in the year 
of Rome 750. 

51. The Julian Period. 

After the restoration of learning and science in the 
loth and 16 centuries, historians saw clearly, that 
without a determinate and certain chronology there 
could be no true and proper history. Chronology 
therefore was zealously pursued as a study by many 






TO CHRONOLOGY. ISl 

1 earned men. They soon saw, that in ancient histo 
ry it must be a primary object to fix upon a uniform 
and generally applicable mode of reckoning, to which, 
all the diverse modes of the different nations of antiqui- 
ty could be reduced. 

For such a general mode of reckoning they conceiv. 
ed nothing would answer better, than first to reduce 
the forms of the year of all ancient nations to the 
Julian year, and second to assume the Creation of the 
world, according to the account of Moses, as the 
Epoch, from which to commence the computation of 
time, i. e. to reckon according to the years of the 
world. But in regard to the year of the world itself 
inquirers were not agreed. From the creation to the 
birth of Christ some reckoned a greater and others a 
less number of years. From such conflicting opin- 
ions and systems perplexity again arose, one saying 
that Rome was built in the year of the world 3196 
another in 3231, another still in 3250. In order to 
understand the account of each, one must first know 
how old he assumed the world to be, or how many- 
years lie reckoned from the Creation to the birth of 
Christ. 

To shun this inconvenience, Joseph Justus Scali- 
ger found out a period of 7980 Julian years, i. e, 
years of the Julian Calendar. ScaJiger, who died 



132 



INTRODUCTION 



1558, was not of course acquainted with the improve- 
ment of the Calendar by Pope Gregory. 

On account of the Julian year, which Scaliger 
adopted for his period, he called it the Julian period- 
It was an error, therefore, when in later times it was 
supposed by some; that the Julian Period was named 
from its finder. The error arose from confounding 
the name of the father Julius Scaliger, who was also 
a celebrated scholar, with that of the son Joseph, who 
was author of this chronolgical device. 

Scaliger assumed, that the world was created 
3949 years before the birth of Christ, but commenc- 
ed his period 764 years before the Creation. Christ 
was therefore born in the 4714th year of the Julian 
Period. 

Petavius, who lived after Scaliger, reckoned from 
the Creation to the birth of Christ 3984 years, and 
must therefore commence the Julian Period 729 year* 
before the Creation. 

Finally Usher computed from the Creation to the 
birth of Christ 4003 years, and must accordingly 
place the beginning of the Julian Period 710 before 
the Creaiion. 

This Julian Period answered the purpose of reliev- 
ing chronolojists from the necessity of giving tho 
year of the world, in which an eveet occurred, ao- 



1*3 

TO CHRONOLOGY. #31 

cording to all the different systems, in order to be 
understood by those who adopted them. It was now 
bufficient to give the year of the Julian Period, and 
every chronologist could readily find the year of the 
world according to his own view of that Epoch. 

The grounds, on which Scaliger took 7980 years 
for his Period, and considered it as beginning 764 
years before the creation, were taken from the sci- 
ence of Astronomy. The mere historical chronolo- 
gist may omit the consideration of these without dis- 
advantage to his studies** 

This Period so ingeniously devised by Scaliger, 
and for a time of so much use, continued however 
to be useful to chronologists, only so long as they reck- 
oned from the Era of the Creation, and disagreed 
about its true time. Since that unsettled mode 
of reckoning has been laid aside, and the more 
convenient and certain mode of reckoning from the 
birth of Christ has been generally adopted, the Julian 
Period is no longer of any necessity or use. 

*It may be observed however in a word, that the number 
was obtained by multiplying together the Solar cycle of 28, the 
Lunar of 19, and the Roman lndiction of 15 years, and the Peri, 
od was conceived to begin, when the number of each of these Cy- 
cles was 0?ze, or when they began together. Thus if from the 
present year of the Julian Period 6550 we subtract the present 
years of those three cycles 26, 14 and 10, and divide the aer- 
eral remainders by 28, 19 and 15, the truth of the statement will 
be shown. Tr. 

11 



134^ INTRODUCTION. 

52. Mohamm edan Era. 

All the Mohammedan nations have the same mode 
of reckoning. The Epoch, from which they com- 
mence in numberifig their years, they call the Hed. 
jira> an Arabic word signifying a flight, having refer- 
ence, as here used, to the flight of Mohammed from 
Mecca to Medina. 

This flight took place, according to accurate chro- 
nologists, on the 16th July of the year 622 of our Era. 

Since the Mohammedans make use of the Arabian 
Lunar year, and 33 of these are only equal to 32 
Solar years, (See § 12 and 34 above) this will give us 
the rule for converting years of their Era unto the 
corresponding years of the Christian Era. 

1. If the number of the Mohammedan years is less 
than 33, I have only to add to it the 621 years from the 
commencement of our Era to the flight of Mohammed. 
Thus the 20th year of the Hedjira would.be the 64] 
of the Christian Era. For within the first 32 year after 
the Hedjira, the Christian Solar, and Mohammedan 
Lunar years, have still a general coincidence. Yet 
in the more accurate comparison of particular days 
we must have regard to the different forms of the 
two Calendars, Since the Lunar year is 11 days 
shorter than the Solar, events, which happened in the 
first 11 days of the second Lunar, must be reckoned 
in the first Solar year. 



TO CHRONOLOGY 



135 



2. If the number of the Mohammedan year to be 
compared be greater than 32 it must be divided by 
33, and the quotient subtracted from the number of 
years, Thus if the number 1222 of the Hedjira be 
given, it gives, when divided by 33, the quotient 37. 
This, subtracted from 1222. gives 1185 Solar years 
since the Kedjira. For 37 times 33 Lunar are equal 
to 37 times 32 Solar years. Those make 1221 Lunar 
years, and these 1185 Solar. 

To the Solar years thus found must be added the 
621 years before the Hedjira, and we thus find 1222 
of the Hedjira, to be 1806 of the Christian Era, 

To convert years of our Era into years of the Hedji- 
ra we must subtract 621, divide the remainder by 32, 
and add the quotient to the given number, because 32 
Solar years of our Calendar are equal to 33 Lunar 
years of the Mohammedan. Thus, if the year 1806 
be given, 621 subtracted leaves 1185. This divided 
by 32 gives 37, which added to 1185 is 1222, or 1806 
of the Christian is 1222 of the Mohammedan Era. 

Yet if the months and days are to be accurately 
given, we must bear in mind, that every Lunar year 
of their Calendar falls short by 11 days of our Solar 
year, and consequently, that events, which happen in 
the first 11 days of the next Lunar, belong to the 11 
last days of the first Solar year. 



136 INTRODUCTION 

The following table shows how the first ten years of 
the Hedjira conespond with our reckoning. 

Hedjira, Christian Calendar. 

1. year irom July 16, 622 

623 
624 
625 
626 
627 
628 
629 
630 
631 

We here close our Introduction to Historical Chro- 
nology. In omitting to say any thing of the chro- 
nological systems of the Bramins, or the Chinese, 
and other nations, we are governed by what seem to 
be sufficient reasons. These are in part, that those 
systems are obscure and uncertain, and in part, that, 
in order to form a judgment of them, it is requisite to 
have great skill and readiness in astronomical calcu- 
lations, connected with chronology, and an accurate 
acquaintance with the lierature and history of those 
nations. But as we can little expect to find such 
skill and knowledge among those, for whom this work 
is written, so we confess ourselves to be in this partic- 
ular in the same condition with them. 



2. — 


= 


July 6, 


3. — 


= 


June 26 


4. — 


=: 


June 16, 


5. — 


= 


June 6, 


6. — 


= 


May 26, 


7. — 


= 


May 16, 


8. — 


= 


May 6, 


9. — 


= 


April 26, 


10.— 


= 


April 16, 



to 


July 5, 


623. 


— 


June 25, 


624. 


— 


June 15, 


625. 


— 


June 5, 


626. 


— 


May 25, 


627. 


— 


May 15, 


628. 


— 


May 5, 


629. 


— 


April 25, 


630. 


— 


April 15, 


631. 


— 


April 5, 


632. 



APPENDIX. 

REMARKS ON THE USE OF EPOCHS IN GENERAL HISTORY. 



I take the word Generator Universal History here 
in its common and generally understood signification, 
without entering into a more precise determination of 
the conception, and of its distinction from the Histo- 
ry of Humanity. 

When I consider the Epochs, which the celebrated 
teachers of General history have assumed, I find 

1. That almost every one has chosen them in ac- 
cordance with his own ideas. Schroeckh has chosen 
one Gatterer another, Schloetzer a third, Beck a 
fourth, &,c. There must therefore be something ar- 
bitrary in the selection of such Epochs. 

2. Epochs are often chosen from views, that are 
contradictory. That, which determines it, is now a 
Moses or Solon, now a Cyrus, an Alexander, or a 
Ginghis Khan ; here a Legislator, a founder of reli- 
gious institutions, or of the regul itions of civil and so- 
cial life, there a destroyer, an oppressor and conque- 
ror. 

General history may be presented from very differ- 
ent points of view, and ought to be exhibted from all 
points, but not from all at once, nor in the same pic- 
ture. It must unavoidably be a very confused picture, 
12* 



138 



APPENDIX. 



if each of the leading figures, which crowd the can- 
vass is presented from a distinct point of view. 

One or another single point must be chosen, and 
from this, and this alone, the whole presented, with 
the consequent degrees of distinctness, which that 
point permits. 

There are many distinct points of view, each of 
which has its peculiar interest. 

Among these we may mention that, in which eve- 
ry thing is contemplated from its relation t political 
power. From this point of view we contemplate ma- 
ny free or independent nations, as existing at the same 
time ; we trace the growing superiority of one; the 
subordination of many to the power of a single 
nation; the predominance of one overcome and bro- 
ken by another ; universal empires established, and 
these again shattered in pieces, while in their place 
rise up again free and independent nations. 

Again history may be viewed relatively to the pro- 
gress of cultivation. Here we see at first rude and 
savaoe Nations ; one or two cultivated and surrounded 
by others which yet remain in their original rudeness; 
diffusion of culture, either by voluntary imitation, or 
by the extended dominion of the cultivated. Again 
the first dawning of cultivation, its progress, obstacles 
in its way, return to barbarism, destruction, restoration. 

Religions point of view. Nations cleave to tradi- 
tional sayings, and inherited modes of representation. 
Individuals establish and diffuse new ideas, either 
from their own conviction, or for moral or political 
ends ; nations improve received ideas, and receive 
new ones, either by persuasion or force ; one religion 



APPENDIX. 



139 



becomes predominant, another is rejected and eradica- 
ted. 

Commercial point of view. There was once an iso- 
lated condition, in which each nation, knew scarcely 
its nearest neighbors; i he different branches of the 
human race were wholly foreign and unknown to each 
other ; one nation began to carry on trade with an- 
other, and more and more extended it, first by land, 
and then also by sea ; trade became the fixed employ- 
ment of particular nations, (commercial nations and 
States.) The extended commerce of the world is 
carried on by only a few nations, and is extended 
from one to aneth 

I cannot believe, that children and young persons 
are interested in reaming much ofthe deeds of an 
Alexander, a Caesar, an 'Aftila^ and studying minute- 
ly, at what periods these heroes performed their great 
exploits. For young and unco«rupted minds there 
are other views, and Epochs more alluring in Gen- 
eral history. 

Why, for example, has not the extension of agri- 
culture been selected with a view to its historical 
Epochs ? 

Agriculture was the first and most necessary con- 
dition, on which the intellectual improvement and 
perfection of the human race depended. Without 
agriculture there would be no towns, without towns 
no sciences, no arts, no trade, no industry. 

Where Ceres had not come, there Apollo and the 
Muses did not venture themselves. 

The invention of agriculture would be the most im- 
portant Epoch in the history of mankind, did it not be- 
long to those primaeval and obscure times, from which 
no distinct notices have come down to us. 



40 APPENDIX. 

But of the diffusion of agriculture five pleasing 
Epochs may be noticed. 

About 2000 years before the birth of Christ agricul- 
ture was still limited to middle Asia. In the most 
ancient f Hebrew) accounts, we find probable grounds 
to suppose, that the Euphrates was yet the western 
limit of agricultural nations. On this side of it still 
wandered nomadic hordes. Egypt alone formed an 
exception. Whence such an advantage was derived 
to this isolated country, we have not the means of fully 
explaining. But beyond the Euphrates agriculture 
was by no means universally diffused. Northern 
Asia was still filled with herdsman and hunters, who, 
to the misfortune of southern and civilived nations, 
were always savage, and lived by plunder and violence. 
Only southern Asia beyond the Euphrates had, by 
means of the plough, become the abode of cultivated 
nations. This was theirs/ Epoch. 

About 1000 years before Christ Asia Minor, 
Greece, Italy, and the North coasts of Africa were 
brought under cultivation, forming the second Epoch. 

Under the dominion of the Romans — perhaps by 
means of this — agriculture was extended over the prov- 
inces of Gaul, Spain, Britian, as far as the Rhine, and 
Danube, and Southern and Western Europe became 
a partaker of the gifts of Ceres, about the time of the 
birth of Christ, This is the third Epoch. 

Along with the Christian Religion, agriculture was 
extended over Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, 
Poland, Prussia, Courland, Livonia. The morasses 
and forests of Northern and Northeastern Europe were 
converted to agriculture, about the year 800, forming 
the fourth Fpoch. 



APPENDIX. 



141 



Finally a fourth continent was discovered, which 
had hitherto been left to the wildness of nature, and 
cultivated by no human hands. This, brought under 
cultivation by European Colonists, bids fair to be one 
day the abode of happier nations, than the history of 
the older continents can exhibit. This is the fifth 
Epoch. 

These several Epochs might be exhibited on as ma- 
ny Charts, showing the progress and extension of ag- 
riculture over the Earth, as the rise and progress of 
the great monarchies has already been. 

Such Charts, connected with the first instructions 
in general history, would to young minds be more 
interesting and delightful, and more productive 
of useful reflections, than those, in which political 
power, and the rise of Empires, form the point of view, 
from which the condition of the race at different peri- 
ods is contemplated. 

* * * * 

Trade and navigation again form an important 
feature in the general history of mankind. It is by 
these, that we have become acquainted with the race 
itself as a Whole, and in its various branches, and 
with the face of the Earth, in its whole extent, and in 
its several parts. Without trade and navigation Geog- 
raphy would never be brought to perfection. 

In the earliest times each nation, knowing little or 
nothing of any other, regarded itself as the whole 
human race, or at least as the most important part of 
it, and the soil, which it inhabited, as the whole earth. 

About 2000 years before Christ, some commercial 
intercourse arose among a few nations of Middle and 
Southern Asia, but chiefly on land, by means of cara- 



142 appkndix. 

vans. Navigation however commenced on the coast 
of the Red Sea, on those of the Persian Gulf, and on 
those of India and Eastern Africa. This formed the 
first Epoch. 

About 1500 years before Christ, the Mediterrane- 
an Sea was navigated in all parts by the Phoenicians, 
and a regular trade began to be carried on between 
all the countries lying on its coasts. Enterprises in 
navigation also were pushed even into the Atlantic 
ocean. This we may consider the second Epoch. 

About 80 years before the birth of Christ, by the 
discovery of the monsoons, i\v ocean, which separates 
India from Africa, was subjected to navigation. It 
was then that voyages were first made from the har- 
bours of Egypt to the East Indies. The man, who 
first discovered by observation the periodical regulari- 
ty and direction of t hose winds, and made such use 
of them, was Hippalus Its effect in promoting inter- 
course and improvement was such, as to give him a 
rank with Prince Henry of Portugal, Vasco de Gama, 
Columbus, Magellan and Cook, among the benefactors 
of the race. It may be regarded as the third Epoch. 

It was in the 12th century, that the Baltic and North 
Seas were first navigated for the purposes of commerce 
by the people of the Hanse towns, and navigation 
carried on between these seas and the Mediterranean, 
forming the fourth Epoch. 

Between 1400 and 1500 commenced the more ex- 
tended enterprises of the Portuguese and Spanish 
navigators. Such have been the consequences of 
these, that now no ocean, no bay, no country or is- 
land of the earth can remain unknown. This is the 
fifth Epoch. 



APPENDIX. 143 

Charts representing these Epochs of trade and navi- 
gation, like those before proposed in relation to agri- 
culture, would be of similar service in the first instruc- 
tions in general history. 

^ -JT "JP TP 

Great political revolutions, and changes in the re- 
lative power and independence of nations, are still im- 
portant Epochs in General history, and without an ac- 
count of these revolutions, and a designation of the 
Epochs, which they form, history would be very im- 
perfect. 

But we ought accurately to determine the character 
of the events, that are to be regarded as forming such 
Epochs. These are not properly, such as prepare the 
way for a revolution, by merely planting the seeds of 
future empire, but those, which are decisive, and so 
establish the power of a single nation, as to make the 
subjugation of others inevitable. 

Tn this view of the matter, the mere building of 
Rome, of an individual city, which for several cenlu- 
ties ruled only over its own narrow d3mesnes, cannot 
be regarded as an Epoch. It was indeed destined to 
the attainment of universal empire, but only at the 
distance of centuries. In the same manner Macedo- 
nia, still also a small power, was destined to future 
empire. Yet we do not make the organization of the 
Kingdom of Macedon an Epoch ; why should we the 
building of Rome ? 

The event that decided the power of Rome, and 
rendered precarious the independence of so many oth- 
er nations, was the termination of the second Punic 
war, or the peace with Carthage in the year 200 be- 
fore Christ. This peace, as it appears to my own 



144 



APPENDIX. 



view, was a truly great Epoch in the history of the 
world. 

Of similar importance as an Epoch, was the battle 
of Actium, 30 years before the birth of Christ. By 
this it was decided, that from that time the fate of a 
great portion of the human race, the fortunes of all civ- 
ilized nations, from the Atlantic ocean to the Euphra- 
tes, were to depend on the arbitrary will of one man. 



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